a 


FOR 


ae ae YEAR 


TS es a — 


me 


ee ee 
To Harmonize with the Ulinois State 
Course of Study.: Seventh — ef 
General Revision. =. svat 
Riis y : : { 3 ¢} S 


ing i) i ee lek ae Saree te ar ae * 


[TREATS ALL, THE WORK ONY for 
EIGHTH Soa: AGasCUETURE, <P 8, 4] 


ee Sadie Haase Sosanl nai cirtng ot ie 


i PRICE 75 CENTS 


a ear tein tim en 


ee 


“ _yonth. Year Agriculture at same "pice, Ba 
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ee ee “= = a ee 
Send all Orders tor”. 


MAMIE o.. EX, Taylorville, Th? 


Be eRe Gr PPS non semcs. ae ee 
Copyright, 1925, by Mamie &. Tex. 


ee er RITE 
PMILLIPS BROS. PRINT 
SPRINGFIELD. ILLINOIS 


AGRIGULTURE 


BY 


MAMIE C, TEX 
FOR 


EIGHTH YEAR 


To Harmonize with the Illinois State 
Course of Study, Seventh 
General Revision. 


¢ TREATS ALL THE WORK ON 
EIGHTH YEAR AGRICULTURE. 


PRICE 75 CENTS 


Seventh Year Agriculture at same price. 
Seventh Year Geography at same price. 
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FOREWORD 


As there is no Highth Year Agriculture on the market 
adapted to the demands of our present Illinois State Course of 
Study, I present this booklet. 


It is my aim to adapt it to the use of any class in the Eighth 
Year following our present Illinois State Course of Study. No 
pains have been spared to make it as accurate and complete 
as possible. It is not to be presumed that this booklet contains 
all that might be said on each topic, but such material is given, 
as the average Highth Year pupil can understand and assimi- 
late. 


In conclusion, this volume is submitted to you, my dear 
pupils and co-workers, with the hope that it will perform its 
mission as designed. 


MAMIE C. TEX, 
Taylorville, Llinois. 


September 10, 1925, 


FIRST QUARTER 


PROPAGATION OF PLANTS; CUTTINGS; INSECTS; 
FRUITS, AND FRUIT TREES 


Home Projects 


If the work of the previous year has been supplemented by 
systematic homé project work, the work for the present year can 
be made much more profitable and interesting. However, if no 
such work has been done, the teacher can-at least map out work 
for the coming year and start the students to work along inde- 
pendex:t lines. If any work has been done, have reports made as 
to the results of such work, check up the separate activities, ex- 
plaining difficulties, and giving such help as is needed. Encour- 
age students to be systematic about their home work, and see that 
they keep a record of dates, etc., which will be of use in their 


school room discussion. 


Propagation of Plants 


By “propagation” of plants we mean reproduction of its 
kind. MORAL hte 

One of the chief ends and aims of all forms of life seems 
to be for each to perpetuate itself, to reproduce its species, and 
if not to multiply its numbers, at least to carry through to a later 
generation, its kind. 

In the vegetable kingdom this is done chiefly in three ways. 

ee needs. 2: ) Bulbs. 3. Runners 

Our most common garden vegetables are types of the first, 
as: lettuce, radishes, turnips, carrots, tomatoes, etc. . * 

In the second class, that of bulbs, we find more of this type 
of propagation among flowers than among vegetables. Most 
kinds of onions are of this type, while tulips, hyacinths, and 
sate other flowers are examples of propagation by means of 

ulbs. 

Many plants produced by runners are known by the botanical 2 
name of “Crytogams,” meaning plants that do not produce flowers 3 
‘or seeds. Of this class of plants the ferns are the highest type. 
These spread rapidly by their creeping root stalks, and every 
housekeeper who has divided and re-potted her ferns knows how. 
rapidly they spread after this treatment. There is a particular 
kind known as the walking fern. The new plant is begun by the, 


wm frond rooting. 


hg 
Lae 


4 FIRST QUARTER 


Many seed plants, however, are propagated by means of 
roots and root stalks: The sedges are good examples of this type 
of plant which will grow horizontally for some distance, then 
will send up a shoot which finally becomes an independent plant. 

The locust and silver leaf poplar often prove themselves 
nuisances on lawns from their habit of sending up sprouts which 
will later develop into independent trees. 

Some seed plants renew themselves by means of their bran- 
ches. Our most common examples of this are the raspberry and 
blackberry bushes. The branches of these plants will root at the 
end and thus form new plants. The strawberry sends out long 
runners which put out roots, and thus propagates itself. 

There are many other means by which plants propagate 
themselves than by these here mentioned, but as they are not 
met with in the average garden or farm, will be left to the province 
of botany, where they properly belong. However, propagation 
Gf plants by cutting both hard and soft woods will later be dis- 
cussed, since these may be of practical value in farm, garden, or 
orchard. 


DIFFERENT METHODS USED TO PROPAGATE PLANTS. 
SEEDS, BULBS, RUNNERS, ETC. 


Propagation of Plants by Seeds 


In our study of the propagation of plants by means of seeds, 
it may be well for us to understand just what we mean by seed. 


There is no confusion in our minds when we speak of a peach . 


seed or cherry seed, but when we speak of a grain of wheat or 
corn as a seed, we are really referring to what is the whole fruit, 
just as a peach or cherry entire is the whole fruit. Our nuts for 
the most part are fruits, while what we know as the kernel is 
really the seed. The so-called Brazil nut, however, is really a 
seed, with a very hard taste. 

In our study of seeds, one of the most interesting and neces- 
sary phases of the subject is their manner of dispersal. Nature 
seems to have endowed plants with almost human intelligence 
in regard to providing means for scattering the seeds. This is 
accomplished in two ways—either by apparatus they themselves 
possess, or by artificial means. Some fruits are known as explo- 
sive fruits, so named because when they burst open, when the 
seeds are ripe, they do so with great violence so that the seeds 
are scattered to quite a distance. The various kinds of balsams, 
the blue violet, the witch-hazel and many other common plants 
are of this type. 

Many seeds bear a tuft of hairs or winged arrangement, 
which will enable them to ride upon the wind for long distances. 
The maple and dandelion seeds are types of this kind. 


FIRST QUARTER . 5 


Most of us are familiar with our tumble weed. This is so 
shaped that it will blow for miles, losing but a few seeds at a 
time. The tickle grass is one of our most common tumble weeds. 

Many seeds are so arranged that they will float long distances 
on water, and are thus scattered to many far-away spots of the 
earth. 

Some of our most troublesome weeds are provided with 
seeds contained in burrs. These catch in clothing or the hair of 
animals and are carried, often to foreign lands. It is said that a 
buffalo was sent as a present to the king of one of the Malay 
Archipelago Islands. Clinging to the buffalo’s hair were many 
queer seeds—the like of which had never been seen on the isiand, 
but in a few years, this plant had soon become a nuisance to the 
people of the island—all propagated from the seeds in the 
buffalo’s hair. ; 

The edible parts of fleshy fruits serve to attract birds. The 
birds in turn seize the fruit in their bill, fly away, eat the fruit, 
drop the seed, and the purpose of the fruit has been accomplished 
—the seed is given a chance in life, in a place uncrowded by others 
of its kind. 

Neither plants or animals in their natural state make unre- 
_warded efforts for the benefit of other animals or of mankind, 
hence we can begin to understand why the fleshy part of so much 
fruit is tempting to both man and animals, while its seeds are 
either bitter, as in the lemon and orange; hard, as in the cherry 
and peach, or small and indigestible, as in the berries. 


Propagation of Plants by Bulbs 


Not a great deal of attention will be given to bulbs in this 
work, because on the average farm they form but a very small 
- part of garden plants. What bulbs are is known to every school 
child. The onion in the vegetable kingdom and the hyacinth in 
the flower kingdom are well known types. The bulb is really an 
underground bud which sends out roots from below. It has 
overlapping scale, like leaves, and has this peculiarity that its 
fiewers or the bulb itself has a decided odor, as is the case in the 
lily and onion. 


Propagation of Plants by Runners, Called ravering. 


Runners are another way in which plants may reproduce 
their kind. Some plants, such as the raspberry, strawberry, and 
grape, are not readily increased by seeds or cuttings, and only 
with great difficulty by budding and grafting. Hence they must 
be propagated in an entirely “different matter. This class of 


plants is usually increased by runners or what is sometimes called 


“layers.” By simply bending a branch into the soil one may 


Ss _™ 


6 FIRST QUARTER 


usually accomplish his end. Sometimes it is necessary to hold the 
branch in place by means of a forked stick. If the bark is thick 
and tough, due often to a dry season, the branch is partly cut off, 
with a slanting cut, ending just under a bud. The branch must 
be buried in moist earth and in seasons of drouth carefully 
mulched. It is well to make a small excavation in which to lay 
the stem. Runners may be put down either in the autumn or 
spring. It may even be done in midsummer if the stalk used is 
the growing wood, if it is mature and firm. The pear, apple, and 
quince may also be propagated in this way, and if the work is 
done in the spring or summer, will usually be well rooted by au- 
tumn. This means of propagation is more easily carried out in a 
wet season, for then the bark is more tender and pliable. Many 
ornamental trees and shrubs are propagated in this way. The 
part of plants known as suckers are really spontaneous runners 
which spring from buds on the roots. The raspberry is largely 
multiplied by these. 

Other means of propagation are: Hard and soft wood cut- 
ting, grafting and budding. 


Soft and Hard Wood Cuttings 


We have seen that most plants are propagated by seeds, 
bulbs, or runners. While we might say that all plants might 
be reproduced in one of these ways, it would not be true to say 
that they all are. It is just another instance where man has 
attempted to improve on nature and succeeded. This variation 
in the means of plant propagation is found in that class of plants 
which are by nature reproduced from seeds. Grown under the 
same conditions year after year, seeds will show little or no varia- 
tion in the plants resulting. But should the environment be 
changed, conditions of moisture be varied, and, above all, inten- 
sive cultivation be employed, new varieties will develop. This is 
undoubtedly the cause of most of our finest fruits. A pear is a 
pear, but generations of cultivation have so changed it, that there 
are now many many varieties, each distinct in shape, color, flavor, 
and time of maturity. This is also true of the apple, peach, and 
similar fruits. 

All this seems perfectly simple and according to nature, but 
scientists have found out a surprising thing about seeds. In fruit 
trees, a seedling—that is, a tree grown from a seed—tends to re- 
vert to the original type and not one in a thousand is better or 
even as good as the tree which produced the seeds. Some other 
means must then be employed in propagating the kind, and here 
man begins his improving—on nature process. 

The student is not to understand that no improvement of 
a type is made from growing seeds, for this is just what Van 


Co a 
ws 
“eee 


FIRST QUARTER ere 


Mons of Belgium and Knight of England did with astonishing 
success, but this means is so uncertain and success is met with 
but once in hundreds and even thousands of trials, that it is most 
obvious that the markets of the world could not depend on it for 
the millions of fruit trees required each year to stock the world’s 
orchards. 

Cross pollinization has been employed in many experiment 
stations with wonderful success, but, like seedling, its results 
were too slow and uncertain for market requirements Hence, 
it was found necessary to discover some more certain and quicker 
means of plant propagation. This was done by cutting, grafting, 
or budding. Every leafbud on a fruit tree, is really an embryo 
branch, and requires but separate roots to form an independent 
tree, but there is not enough food material in a leafbud to keep up 
the growth while new buds and roots are forming. Hence, an 
entire shoot or cutting must be taken. Such plants as the currant, 
grape, gooseberry, and quince are frequently propagated in this 
manner. Some trees which have a large pith succeed better if a 
portion of the last year’s growth is taken off with the branch, 
while in large, strong, woody shoots, success is more certain if the 
branch is taken off where the branch joins the previous year’s 
growth. Autumn and winter are the best time to make cuttings. 
The cuttings may be eight to twelve inches in length, and all buds 
except a few at the upper end removed. 


Grafting 


Grafting is an entirely different process from cutting, yet 
its underlying principle is the same. There are many, many ways 
of grafting. Indeed, there are so many that the average beginner 
is more than bewildered with their endless number. For this 
reason, the present discussion will be limited to a brief discussion 
of the main principles of the work, rather than a general discus- 
sion of the various means. 

The main difference between grafting and cutting is that in 
the former process the branch is inserted in a growing stock of 
a tree, while in the latter, the cutting is put in direct contact with 
the ground. In grafting, the stock of the tree supplies the roots 
and sap for the branch inserted, and thus the two become firmly 
united by means of the new growing wood. 

The two things necessary to secure a successful graft is 
that the sap must have an uninterrupted flow in the grafted 
branch, and that the forming wood must reach downward with- 
out break into the inner bark. Here comes the difference between 
grafting hard and soft woods, for should the inner bark of the 
graft rest wholly on the wood of the tree, there can be no upward 
movement of sap, and hence the graft will die. In soft wood the 


8 FIRST QUARTER 


line of division is not so small, hence less care is needed with 
these. But as most of the soft woods are pithy, these are usually 
propagated by cuttings being put into the ground rather than by 
grafting process, hence this present discussion will be held to deal 
only with methods found most successful with the hard woods. 

In grafting, four things are essential: The cut must be made 
smooth and clean, and the two parts brought at once into contact. 
Second, permanent pressure must be applied so that the parts be 
held firmly together. Third, the line of division between wood 
and inner bark of each must coincide. Fourth, the external air 
and moisture must be excluded until the permanent union has 
taken place. The latter is secured by various forms of grafting 
was composed of rosin, tar, and beeswax. 

Grafts may be cut in autumn or winter. Those cut in the 
autumn are usually more vigorous, if carefully packed in a moist 
place during the cold months. 

Veneer grafting is the mode most used by persons who have 
not made a close study of agriculture, yet it has its good points 
and is most highly recommended by many. It consists in remov- 
ing the outer bark of both stock and graft and then bringing the 
cambium layer of each into contact. The disadvantage of this 
form of grafting, lies in the fact that great care must be taken to 
keep the parts in position until the union takes place. 

Many people who graft do not realize that union does not 
take place between the hard wood parts of the branch and stock 
but only in the growing parts—the cambium layer, and the 
young sap wood. 

Peach grafting is rarely successful, but plub_and cherry 
succeed well when performed very early in the spring. Pears 
and apples may be grafted later after the buds have swollen. 
As soon as a tree begins to grow after being grafted, all the buds 
must be removed from the stock in order that all the sap be sent 
into the graft. If a larger tree is grafted, remove the buds only 
from the branch on which the graft is fixed. 


BUDDING 


_ Budding is very similar to grafting, and consists in inserting 
the bud of one tree, together with a bit of its bark, and a little of 
the wood beneath the bark of some other tree, upon the face of 
the new growing wood. To bud a branch, a iengthwise slit cf 
about two inches is made in a branch, then a cross cut is made at 
the top so that the whole cut forms the letter T. The bark only is 
cut. This is then pressed gently back, and a bud taken off of the 
present year’s growth is inserted. Connected with the bud must 

_— be about one or one and one-half inches of bark and growing 


4 : ee thy 
ee 


FIRST QUARTER 9 


wood. This is gently forced down into the T-cut made in the 
stock, and the whole held in place by some bandage such as raffia. 

The bud shoots should be cut when the terminal bud has 
formed. The bud, after being inserted, remains dormant until 
the following spring. Then the stock should be cut off twe or 
more inches above the inserted bud. All other buds must be re- 
moved, and all the sap is then turned into the one bud. The 
peach, the apricot, and the mulberry, while difficult to graft suc- 
cessfully, are easily increased by budding. 

Annular budding is a method of budding used on trees which 
have a very hard wood or very thick bark, such as the walnut and 
magnolia. This is done by taking a ring of bark off of the stock 
to be budded. Then a corresponding ring with the bud to be used 
is made to fit the place on the stock where the bark has been re- 
moved. 

In successful budding there are five things very necessary : 

1. One must have a thrifty growing stock, whose bark peels 
easily. . 

2. The time must be right. The cambium layer must be 
just right to insure success. 

3. Buds must be well matured. 

4. A sharp knife must be used in order that the buds will 
be properly cut. 

A proper amount of pressure to hold the bud in place. 

Summer is the best time for budding, while spring is the best 
time for grafting. Budding is simpler than grafting and the be- 
ginner is apt to have better success with it than with grafting. It 
is the chief way of increasing our peach trees, since grafting is 
rarely successful in the North on peach trees. Grafting, however, 
has this in its favor, that it will succeed on older and less vigorous 
trees. Grafting also requires less care afterwards, since no liga- 
tures need be removed, nor do the stocks have to be later headed 
down. 

Before one can become successful at this work, he must 
first realize the limitations as well as the possibilities of budding 
and grafting. 

At one time it was believed that grafting could be performed 
between every species of trees and shrubs. We know this to be 
untrue. Success is more certain if the graft and stock are closely 
velated. Varieties of the same species unite the most freely, as a 
pear grafted onto a pear. Species of the same genus come next, 
as a pear grafted on a quince. 

Genera of the same natural order show the least success in 
_ grafting, as a pear on an apple. Beyond this, success is impos- 

sible, as a pear upon a plum or cherry tree. : 


1) FIRST QUARTER 


However, there are exceptions to this, as to every rule; for 
instance, most species of cherry cannot be grafted on the wild 
cherry, though they are of the same genus. 

In order that no confusion may arise in the pupil's mind as 
to the value of grafting, it is well to point out that seedlings or 
inferior stock may be made valuable and productive by the pro- 
cess. One good peach tree will supply enough buds to eventually 
produce a whole orchard of fine trees. 4 

Another advantage of grafting may well be mentioned. Many 
kinds of trees—as, for instance, the Grimes Golden apple—usu- 
ally have a comparatively short life, while if they are grafted to 
other sturdy stocks, their bearing period may be increased years. 

Strange as it may seem, the budded or grafted shoot never 
partake of any of the characteristics of the stocks upon which 
they grow. They run true to their parent tree. Instances are 
on record where nurserymen have traveled across continents and 
paid thousands of dollars for a single tree of superior fruit. The 
buds from this tree may make it possible for people almost all 
over the world to enjoy the flavor of this particular variety, while 
if it were not for budding or grafting, the market could be sup- 
plied from but one tree. 


Budding and grafting are fascinating work, and may be very © 


successfully performed by the students on trees around the school 
grounds. Encourage them to try, especially if young timber is 
near. Government bulletins are available on the subject, and ‘he 
student should be encouraged to send for and to read <hem. 

No part of the farm holds greater possibilites of pleasure and 
profit than does the orchard. Care of the orchard is pleasant and 
easy, and can be seen to when other work is slack. Therefore, 
the students are urged to experiment on trees on their home 
grounds and then report progress in later months to the class. 


Care of Cuttings; Forming of Callus and Roots; Transplanting. 


If we wish to make a cutting, we remove a part of a stem 
with at least one well developed bud. This may be put into warm 
moist earth or into water. After roots have formed, we may 
then transplant it to its permanent place of growth. In this way 
geraniums, verbena, heliotrope, nasturtium and many other 
flowers may be propagated. Usually it is best to have at least two 
or three joints or nodes to each plant. If there are several leaves 
on the plant they should be removed to prevent too much evapor- 
ation. As soon as the roots are an inch or more in length the 
cuttings should be transplanted into permanent places. 


Currant, grape, gooseberry, and flowering shrubs are among. 


the hard wood class. These are generally cut in the fall and 
packed in green sawdust or damp sand till about February or 


Ri a ane . 


FIRST QUARTER 11 


March, when they may be started in the house or even left till 
jater and placed outdoors, in well prepared soil. There should 
be at least two or three nodes to each plant and planted so that 
at least one node is above ground. 

Potatoes, sweet potatoes, and sugar cane are nearly always 
propagated from cuttings. In considering this, we must recognize 
that a potato is but a swollen underground stem, and therefore, 
when we plant a potato, it is really a cutting. 

When we make a cutting of a geranium, for instance, we 
either place it in water or in moist earth. If we put it in a glass 
of water, we more readily see the changes which take place at 
the lower end of the branch. Extra layers of cells begin to form 
here, called a callus. They have a peculiar grey color and give 
the stalk a swollen appearance at the cut end. From this callus 
come in a few days very fine white thread like roots which de- 
velop later into heavier growths. 

Some plants develop roots much earlier than others, while 
in some instances roots fail to form at all. 


How to Care for the Plants. 


When roots have formed of sufficient strength and length to 
make it safe to transplant the cutting, this should be done with 
ereat care. The earth should be moist, warm, and finely pow- 
dered. In this the young plant should be carefully placed, with 
the roots so placed they will neither be bent nor broken. If ex- 
posed to direct sunlight, they should be covered for several Gays. | 
Newspapers held down by heavy clods or bits of bricks are ade- 
quate protection. 


Advantage of Raising Plants from Cuttings. 


There are several advantages in raising plants from cuttings. 

The chief one is perhaps the time element. Raising them from 
seeds would require a great deal longer. Another advantage is 
that of economy. One tree will yield cuttings for grafts or buds 
“enough for a whole orchard. Another advantage is that by bud- : 
_ ding and grafting, we may use stalks of really inferior fruits, but . 
by using good buds or grafts we may in the end have a fine 
variety of fruit. | 


Projects:—Make a Propagation Box, A Window Box . 


It is suggested that the girls of the class have charge of the 
window box, and the boys of the propagation box. In the former | 
have geraniums, which have been propagated by cuttings, while 

‘ in the latter have various kinds of berries, and such bushes as 
the boys have propagated by cutting or layering. 


i 
i, 
: 
> 


12 FIRST QUARTER 


INSECT LIFE 


Special Attention to Insects Encountered in Connection with 
Farm and Garden Projects 


In the beginning the study of insects, it is well to recognize © 
clearly at the start that all insects are not pests, but may be of 
actual benefit to the farmer or gardner, and that some insects 
may be pests under some circumstances.and an aid to the farmer 
under other conditions. Keeping these two ideas clearly in mind, 
let us take up the study of insects in general. 

As we all know, the animal world is divided into many 
classes, at the head of which stands man, the human animal. 
Much lower in the scale of life comes the insects, “Insecta,” as 
they are biologically known, from the Latin verb insecare, mean- 
ing “to cut.” This name is applied to them not as some of you 
may think because of their bad habits of cutting and eating things, 
but because of the peculiar shape of their body. They have three 
clearly defined body regions, head, thorax and abdomen. 

Catch a fly and examine it closely. You will find it to have 
three separate parts to its body. Most insects have only three 
pairs of legs, and usually two pairs of wings. Most of them have 
antennae or feelers which project from the head, usually near the 
eyes, which are nearly always very prominent. The hind legs are 
always the largest and best developed. 

Just as the animal kingdom is divided up into numerous 
divisions, just so is the insecta class, divided into subdivisions. 

Under the insecta class, we may include bugs, beetles, bees, 
flies, butterflies, moths and many others. 

For the most part, we let the word “bug” cover all class 
of insect which we find on farm or garden. But while this 
term 1S a convenient one, it is by no means a scientific one. 
nor is it a just one, for the various forms of insects have their 
peculiar characteristics, likes and dislikes, just as human beings 
do, and it is only by studying these, that we can come to any. 


clear idea of the treatment each kind will require. 


Since an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, it 
may be well to find out, if possible, what will prevent an attack 
of garden and farm pests. : 

Men who have made a study of the subject for years, find 
that proper cultivation and the observance of hygienic princi- 
ples are the best possible preventatives for all pests to which 
one’s garden lays liable. These men have found out that the 
cultivation of large areas of any one crop, too close crowding 
of trees and plants, forcing, and lack of proper cultivation are 
the chief aids to plant pests of various kinds. os 


FIRST QUARTER 13 


When one stops to consider that each year the loss to vege- 
table crops through pests is fully 20 per cent of the entire crop, 
one sees how extremely necessary it is that farmers possess a 
better knowledge of ways and means of combatting these 
nuisances. The “up-to-date” farmer knows that many pests 
may be checked or wholly eradicated by wnproved farming 
methods. He also gives consideration to the time and place of 
planting, and that crop rotation is not only beneficial to the soil 
but most destructive to many pests. Burning over fields after 
harvest is one way to destroy such pests as live above the 
surface. Cut worms, aphids, grasshoppers, some bettles, and 
many other insects which live on or near the surface may be 
destroyed in this way. 

The boll weavel of the South taught the farmers of that 
section the necessity of diversified farming to control this pest. 
They have found that crops of different kinds must be grown, 
or cotton raising will have to be given up entirely. Fall plow- 
ing and cultivating are other methods of eradicating pests. 
Disking has been found especially effective against the fall 
army worm. Another help to the careful farmer is cooperation 
with his neighbors. For a man to attempt to combat success- 
fully pests which sometimes sweep over whole counties, is utter 
folly; but the united effort of all the farmers of a section may 
do much to destroy the invader before much harm has been 
done. 

But perhaps the two greatest aids in combatting farm pests 
are clean methods of farming and constant vigilance. Weedy 
corners in fields, piles of trash, and unburnt rubbish, and 
unplowed fields are merely invitations to insect enemies. Con- 
stant watchfulness on the farmer’s part will more than repay 
for time and trouble. A pest which today may be merely mak- 
ing its appearance, in forty-eight hours may be beyond control. 
Usually, the appearance of pests will be first noticed along the 
edge of fields. 

Perhaps the most common pest with which the average 
gardeners have to deal with is the cut_worm. Sooner or later 
anyone who attempts to raise a garden will come across this 
enemy, for he is known as a “general feeder’”—that is, he eats 
almost everything. There are numerous species of this pest, and 
they rank as one of the greatest enemies of the American 
gardener. They are especially destructive to such plants as 
tomato or cabbage, which must be reset, also to young corn or 
potatoes, which are just coming above the ground. They are 
the larvae of the owlet moths, and work at night. There are so 
many species of cut worms that it is impossible in a work of 
this scope to describe all of them, but all have the same soft, 


14 FIRST QUARTER 


smooth, round body, varying from light grey to brown or even 
black. Some are spotted or marked with stripes. They work 
at night: then they lie curled up in the ground near the plant 
they have destroyed, until the next night, when they feed again 
on some other plant. 

The eggs are usually laid on grasses and weeds, which 
spring up in the fall after the crop is harvested. These hatch 
out, and the larvae feed until cold weather drives them into the 
ground. Later they enter the pupa stages, which vary in length 
for from three to even eight weeks, then hatch out as moths. 

The “greasy cut worm” is so called because of its greasy 
appearance. It is a dull, dirty-brown color, with greenish 
undersurface. It will eat any part of a plant, and often cuts 
down plants six or more inches in height. It generally cuts 
them about one inch above the ground. The “granulated cut 
worm’ is so called because of the very small, round, black spots 
which cover its body. The “variegated cut worm” is one of 
the most destructive of all and is so called because of its mottled 
appearance. 

There are many methods of combatting cut worms, and 
circumstances must decide the method to be used. Bran mash 
or young clover treated with Paris green often prove effective 
as poison baits. Another way to prevent injury to young plants 
is to wrap the roots of the plants in paper before resetting. 
Bordeaux mixture has been found very effective in treating this 
pest. If the plants to be watched are few in number, hand 
picking is to be advised. 

The army worm and fall army worm required much the 
same treatment as or dinary cut worms. In farm fields infested 
with these pests, it is often necessary to burn over the whole 
field, while fall plowing and thorough cultivation will also do 
much for their destruction. 

These are two forms of caterpillars not included in the cut 
worm class—‘“‘naked and hairy caterpillars.”’ However, as most 
of them feed on useless plants they are of little interest to this 
work. 

The “garden webworm’” is an example of pest which is a 
pest only under some conditions. It usually feeds on useless | 
vegetation, but may attack garden crops. It is sv called because 
it draws together edges of a leaf, by means of a web, thus 
making a shelter from where it crawls out only when it feeds. 
Paris green has proved a very effective remedy for this pest. 

The beetles are among our most destructive insects. The 
leaf beetle takes many forms, the twelve-spotted cucumber bug 
being the most common in this region. The flea beetle is so 
called from its habit of jumping from one plant to another. 


FIRST QUARTER 15 


The potato flea and cabbage flea are well known types of this 
est. 

: Arsenical and Bordeaux mixtures are recommended for 
ridding one’s garden of these insects. 

Other bettles found in vegetable gardens are the Blister 
Beetles, Striped Blister Beetles or Potato Bug, and the Three- 
lined Blister Beetles. 

These are especially destructive to potatoes, beans, peas, 
beets, tomatoes, melons, radishes, cabbage, and squash. The old 
hand method of “bugging,” or the use of Paris green are stand- 
ard remedies for this pest. 

Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, and katydids are all closely 
related. Grasshoppers are migratory or non-migratory, the 
former being the most harmful. They develop in enormous 
numbers, and move in such numbers that they darken the face 
of the sun. These raids cccur most often in semi-arid regions. 
' The red-legged locust is one of the most common of our grass- 
hoppers. The Rocky Mountain Locust ts one of the most 
destructive of our locusts, and it was to its work that during 
the years 1874-7 Kansas, Nebraska, and neighboring states owed 
their enormous loss in crops. The differential locust is usually 
found along roadsides and in timber lands, and when it enters 
fields, it becomes very destructive. 

White grubs are another pest with which gardeners have 
to deal. As there are several hundred distinct kinds of grubs, 
they will be treated as a class. They may be described as soft, 
large, whitish, or yellowish worms, bodies wrinkled, and some- 
what hairy, yellow or brown heads, with the body enlarged at 
the back portion. They usually are curled up almost in a 
circle, and crawl on their sides. They are the larvae of the June 
beetle, a large, shinning, brown beetle, known to every one from 
its habit of flying into lighted rooms at night and bumping 
against walls and ceilings. In the larvae stage, they are very 
destructive to grasses and root crops, also to corn and young 
trees. The beetles also cause much damage to foliage of young 
orchards, where they feed at night. In infested fields, fall 
plowing is an effective aid in their extermination. Rotation of 
crops should be so planned that beets, corn, potatoes or other 
crops which are subject to injury from the white grub should 
be followed by crops that are immune. 

Wire worms are another pest with which the farmer is 
often confronted. They are the offspring of the click beetle or 
snap-bugs, which are so called because of the peculiar habit 
they have of leaping into the air with a sudden snap when they 
fall upon their backs. They feed on various vegetable crops, 
such as potatoes, turnips, etc. The worms are wire-like, smooth, 


16 FIRST QUARTER 


nearly round, hard, and yellow or reddish in color. They are 
exceedingly hard to kill and do not readily yield to any known 
remedy. 

Among the most widely known plant pests are the aphides, 
plant lice, leaf hoppers, and other related forms too numerous ~ 
to mention. These all secure their food by suction. _They are 
usually soft-bodied and green, very small, with long legs, 
antennae, and often thin, gauzy wings. The melon apis is one 
of the best known of this type. All of them live through several 
life cycles each year. For the most part they are found on the 
under surface of leaves, but some feed on roots, as is the case . 
with the grape phylloxera, which lives underground and pro- 
duces galls. Kerosene emulsion is one of the best known reme- 
dies for these pests. Tobacco extracts are also good, but each 
must be applied in a fine spray to the underside of the leaf. 


Necessary Equtoment for Insect Study. Vivariums or Insect 
Cages, Pint and Quart Jars 


Each pupil should have a glass in which to keep his * 
specimens. 

The equipment for insect study may be as simple or 
elaborate as one wishes, but home made equipment will result in 
quite as good work as the more elaborate preparation. In some 
instances it is desirable to keep the specimens alive and existing 
under as near normal conditions as posible. For these a wide 
netting box is recommended. ‘This may be made by the boys of 
the class and covered with ordinary wire screen. It may vary 
from a few inches square to the size of a large hat box. The 
larger size is recommended if branches, or leaves are to be placed 
within, and the animal’s feeding on them observed. Ordinary 
pint of quart fruit jars are of use but unless air is admitted in 
some way the specimens soon die. For this reason, the glasses 
with tin covers, in which one buys peanut butter or such foods, 
is recommended. In these the insects may be kept, and holes 
punched in the lids to admit air. A good magnifying glass is 
also recommended, one being enough for 5 or 6 students. 

There should be an ample supply of cardboard and labora- 
tory pins for use in mounting specimens. A cyanide insect bottle 
for killing specimens is also of use, as are insect cases for pre- 
serving them. Be sure to label each specimen as to the time 
it appeared, and disappeared. 


x 
Garden Pests 


The following list is by no means complete, but may help 
the amateur gardener locate and exterminate some of his more 
common. enemies, 


FIRST QUARTER 3 , 17 


Asparagus beetle is slender, blue black in color, red thorax, 
yellow or dark blue wings. It is about one fourth of an inch 
in length and may be held in check by destroying parts of plants 
infected with the larvae, or eggs. Fresh air slacked lime applied 
early in the morning is also good. 

Pea weevil is about one-fifth of an inch in length, is black 
with white and brown markings. It lays its eggs in the green 
pea, these hatch into larvae, and when the pea is planted develop 
into beetles. Late planting and holding seed over a season are 

both recommended as remedies. 

| The bean weevil is closely related to the pea weevil. Unlike 
the pea weevil, many generations will spring up in the same 
seeds, hence, the beans must be fumigated or subjected to heat. 
Weeviled beans should never be planted. 

The Seed Corn maggot attacks and scrapes the roots, stalks, 
-and stems of plant underground. Its parent looks like the 
common house fly. Beans, peas, and corn are most severe suf- 
ferers from it,-but cabbage, turnips, radishes, beets, and other 
-vegetables frequently are destroyed by it. Mineral fertilizers 
help to check its spread; hellebore and carbolic acid emulsion 
are also good, while hand picking is especially effective. 

The Spinach Flea Beetle is black with a_reddish-yellow 
thorax. They are especially destructive to beets. 

The cabbage is a vegetable especially liable to attacks from 
pests. The cabbage maggot, an imported pest, is becoming more 
troublesome each year. Carbolic acid emulsion has been found 
to be effective. Hellebore applied around the roots has been 
found good also. The cabbage worm is the worst of all garden 
‘pests. The white butterfly is its parent. The female has two 
black spots on its fore wing, while the male has but one. The 
best remedy is Paris green, and should be used when the plants 
are first set out. The worm itself is green, soft, and burrows 
into the heart of the cabbage. 

The Striped Cucumber Beetle measures about two-fifths of 
an inch in length. It is yellow, striped with black, and black 
head. They attack cucumber, squash, and melon plants early 
in the season. Lime is one of the best known remedies. 

The Squash Vine Borer is hard to detect, but the presence 
of a yellowish-brown powdery excrement which it drops from 
its place in the stem of the plant will denote its presence, as 
well as the sudden wilting and dying down of the leaves. The 
parent is a clear-winged moth. The outer wings are a bright 
olive brown, with greenish reflections. The body is marked 
with red, orange, black, and bronze. The larvae look much like 
grubs. Fall harrowing and spring plowing are beneficial in 
exterminating this pest, and squashes should not be planted on 


18 FIRST QUARTER 


ground in two successive years, if these bugs are known to be 
present. 

More species of pest attack corn than any other known 
vegetable. Over two hundred are known to attack the corn | 
plant. Of these about twenty attack the seed, almost thirty 
the roots, about eighty the stalk, about one hundred twenty 
the leaf, about twenty the tassel, and nearly fifty the ear. The 
others attack the dried ear. Among the pests the most common 
are: 
The Corn Root Aphis, which is a bluish green, and caused 
injury while the plant is young, resulting in wilting, and 
stunted growth. 

Corn Root Worm is slender, thread-like, and soft, white or 
yellowish in color, and it feeds on the underground stems. Its 
parent beetle is yellowish green, wings marked with twelve 
black spots, known sometimes as the twelve-spotted cucumber 
beetle. 

The Common Stalk Borer is sometimes called the heart 
worm. It works in the corn stalk, and also attacks tomatoes, 
potatoes, peppers, and other vegetables, and some flowers. 

The Corn Ear WVorm is almost.too common to need men- 
tion. It works at the tassel end of the ear, and soon leaves the 
ear in a disgusting condition. 


Keep a Chart 


Each pupil should keep a chart record of insects aot 
into the school room. The record should show the name of the 
child, name of the insect, and whether it is a pest or beneficial 
insect. 


Special Study of Cabbage Worm; Butterfly, Life History 


All insects hatch from eggs just as many other animals do, 
but they have various. forms during their life. For instance. 
when a butterfiy or moth is young it has a worm-like body, 
and is called a caterpillar, or larva. This larva grows rapidly, 
and soon passes into the pupa stage. In this. stage, it may 
be inclosed in a silky cocoon, or in merely a sort of hard shell. 
During this period it lies dormant, and eats nothing. Some- 
times it lies. there for days, weeks, or even throughout the 
winter. When it hatches, it is an adult insect, which it turns 
lays eggs (if a female) and thus the life cycle is completed. 

In the case of the cabbage worm, it is the larva of the well 
known white butterfly we see fluttering over the cabbage patch. 
The worm is greenish in color, covered with a fine down and 
tapers to one end. It lays its eggs on the leaves of the plants, 
where they hatch in ten days, and then the larvae feed on the 


FIRST QUARTER 19 


cabbage for about three weeks. The pupa stage lasts about two 
weeks. There aré generally two generations each season—one 
in May and one in July. 

The best remedy is to use Paris green on the plants when 
first set out. 


Tomato Worm 


The tomato is frequently injured by a large caterpillar called 
the tomato fruit-worm (Heliothis obsoleta.) This is the same 
as the enemy of tobacco known as the bud worm, and also feeds 
on corn and cotton, where it is known as the corn ear worm and 
the cotton boll-worm. The larva eats into the tomatoes and often 
destroys large numbers of them. To control them the land should 
be plowed in the fall, and the plants powdered with arsenate of 
lead. 

The tomato worm is another tomato pest. It is a large green 
caterpillar about three and one-half inches long. The moths are 
large. They appear from May to June. To control, hand pick 
the larvae. 


Squash Bug 


The och bug unlike the cabbage worm, does not pass 
through complete changes of form. Like the erasshopper and 
cricket they have the same form as when first hatched, except 
that the young have no wings. These insects molt or shed their 
skins several times; each time their wings grow larger. This 
finally results in a complete set of wings. 

Other Insect Pests 

The codling moth is one of the most injurious of the cutting 
insects. The adult is a small grey moth about one-half inch in 
length. It lays its eggs on the leaves or the the fruit of the apple 
tree. These hatch and the larvae eat their way into the apple. 
Then the larvae work their way out crawl down under the bark of 
the tree from which they come out as adult insects. The larvae 
we are all familiar with as the white worm found in apples. If 
the young fruit is affected, it will fall; if it isn’t, it remains on the 
tree to become a stunted deformed HO fruit. To destroy this 
calyx tubers close. Lime sulphur AE ey or or Bordeaux mixture 
and arsenate of lead are recommended as sprays. 

The potato beetle is another well known pest. Its eggs are 
laid on the underside of the leaf. These hatch into small larvae 
that feed on the leaves, the pupa stage follows, then comes the 
perfect insect, commonly called the potato bug. It is about one- 
half inch long and has ten stripes along the back. Spray the 
potato crop with one pound of Paris Green to the acre. 


20 FIRST QUARTER 


The cucumber beetle is a little small striped beetle which 
teeds upon the leaves of the young plant. They can be killed by 
spraying with arsenate of lead compound. The larvae sometimes 
attack the roots of the cucumber. They also feed on watermelon, 
squash and muskmelon vines. 


Field Pests, Corn Worm, Aphis, Hessian Fly, Ete 


There are several worms injurious to corn. Among them are 


the wireworms, army worms, cutworms, white grubs, sod web-.. 


worms, corn bill bugs, chinch bug, stalk ‘borer, seed corn maggot, 
corn ear worm, corn root aphis and the northern corn root worm. 


Some of these have been discussed already. The corn ear worm. 


(Heliothis obsoleta) is perhaps the most common. It is some- 
times known as the cotton boll worm, the tomato fruit worm, or 
the tobacco false budworm. It is variable in its markings but is 
usually dull greenish or brown in color. 

There are various kinds of aphididae which attack apples, 
beans, peach, plum, cabbage, cherry, clover, corn, cotton, grapes, 
melons, peas, potatoes, apples, spinach, strawberries, wheat, and 
other vegetation. The corn root aphis is bluish green in color, 
and sucks the juice from the roots of corn and many other 
plants. These aphididae are cared for by colonies of brown ants, 
which live off a sort of honey secreted by the aphis. The best 
way to control the aphididae is to plow up the field in the fall, 
thus destroying the nests of ants. The aphis can not live without 
the ant to care for it. 

The Hessian fly is one of the chief enemies of our 
wheat fields. It is a tiny two-winged gnat, one-tenth of an 
inch long. It emerges in the fall, and lays eggs on the 
upper surface of the leaves. The maggot goes down into the 
leaf sheath, and forms a brown looking knot—known as the flox 
seed. This hatches in the spring into other flies. It passes the 


summer in the wheat stubble. One method of destroying them is 
to plow under the infected crop. This is expensive but effective’ 


Fall plowing, burning over of fields in the fall, rotation of crops, 


and clean farming are recommended to check the Hessian fly 


ravages. 


Discussion of Chinch Bug and Treatment 


Chinch bugs are the worst enemy of wheat and corn among 
the insects. They are small dark colored, with white wing covers. 
They damage the grain by sucking the sap from the plant in much 
the same way as the Hession fly. The adult bugs live through the 
winter, and lay their eggs in the spring. When the young first 
hatch they show a reddish color. No real method of control is 
known. All infected fields should be burnt over each fall. This 


ha 


FIRST QUARTER 21 


is especially important as it not only destroys many of the insects, 
but also their hiding place. Furrows filled with oil have afforded 
some protection. Neglected fields are their breeding places. 


Pests of the Home, Ants, Roaches, Etc. 


There are many varieties of ants but the most common pest 
of the ant family that bothers the house is the little red ant known 
as the house ant. It is less than one-sixteenth of an inch long and 
proves a great nuisance by running over food, getting into sugar, 
cakes, etc. Its nest is usually in the walls of the house or in 
some place exceedingly difficult to reach. A drenching with boil- 
ing water or bisulphide or carbon may serve to destroy the 
colony, if the nest can be reached. If not, a sponge should be 
dipped in strong sugar water and placed on a saucer in the pantry. 
As the sponge fills with ants it can be dropped into boiling water 
and the ants thus killed Persian insect powder or carbolic acid 
sprayed across the line of their travel may aid in ridding the place 
of them. 

Another variety is the large black ant. This is quite des- 
tructive, and consumes great quantities of food. It has it nest 
usually in rotted wood somewhere in 1 the concealed part of the 
house. 

There are many species of cockroaches. The small so balled 
German roach is widespread, and abundant in the cooler parts of 
the South. It was first seen in the United States in New York 
City about the time the Croton aqueduct was opened and was 
called the Croton bug, for it was believed to have come with the 
water supply. 

Roaches will eat almost anything—-animal matter, cereal 
products, paste, glue, bread, etc. Roaches are found only in warm 
places, being unable to withstand the cold. Of the larger kinds, 
we have three varieties the Orientalis roach, the Periplaneta aus- 
tralasial or Australian roach and the Periplaneta Americana or 
the American roach. They are always numerous on ship board, 
around bakeries, sugar refineries, and such places. They like a 
warm damp place to breed. Absolute cleanliness is the best pre- 
ventative. Great care should be taken to keep soiled clothing in 
tight containers, to air and dry all dish and mop cloths, and to 
keep pantries and kitchens clean, light, and airy. There are many 
good powders on the market. Borax is good as is also black flag. 


~Insects that Cause Human Diseases; House Fly; Mosquito; 
Campaigns 
Probably the most common and dangerous household pest is 


the housefly (Musca domestica). It is probably a native of India 
but has followed man to all parts of the world. While it always 


22 FIRST QUARTER 


occurs where human habitation is established, it is never found 
elsewhere. It is closely. related to the stable fly which 
originated in Africa and is a blood sucker. The house fly 
can not bite nor is it a blood sucker, It) breedswipeeua 
ably in horse manure, and this is its favorite larvae food. Because 
of its filthy habits of feeding on filth then lighting on clean foods 
it has come to be one of the most dreaded house pests. It has 
been shown to be a very common carrier of typhoid germs, especi- 
ally in Southern countries where food is exposed to flies then 
eaten. Another way it may infect food is at dairy farms where 
sufficient care is not taken. Infantile diarrhea and summer com- 
plaint are also caused sometimes by flies. It was at one time 
thought that the stable fly carried the germ of infantile paralysis, 
but its is now not thought to be the case. 

African sleeping sickness little known in our country, is 
caused by certain biting flies known as the tsetse fly, which belong 
to the same family as the house and stable fly. But the genius 
Glossina in which these flies are included is restricted to the 
African continent. 

Of recent years, it has been found how dangerous flies are 
and steps are being taken to control them. Borax, hellebore and 
a fertilizer consisting of calcium cyanamid, acid phosphate, and 
kainit, are very destructive to the larvae of flies in horse manure. 
Yet these do not harm the manure as a fertilizer. These are used 
on manure piles. Also fly traps have been perfected for use over 
manure piles. The housefly develops only in alkaline material, 
hence if acidulated, it eliminates it as fly food. Much money is 
also spent in screens, fly swaters, fly paper, fly traps, yet there has 
been no great diminuation of their numbers. To accomplish any 
great benefit, campaigns must be national instead of local. 

Mosquitoes like flies are found almost all over the world. 
They are known to be responsible for such diseases as malaria 
fever, yellow fever, dengue fever, filariasis, etc. Of these, the 
best known is ague, or malaria fever, sometimes called the chills. 
It was the first human disease traced to an insect carrier. The 
growth of the germ in the human system is complicated. The 
parasitic organisms exist in the blood of persons suffering from 
malaria. This blood if taken into the stomach of the germs 
Anopheles undergoes certain changes and later penetrate the walls 
of the stomach. From here they find their way to the salivary 
glands. Twelve to twenty days are required for these changes 
to take place in the body of the mosquito. The germs remain 
virulent for several weeks and if the mosquito bites a person dur- 
ing that time, the malaria germs are introduced into his system, 
and malaria may result. 


FIRST QUARTER 23 


Quinine is a specific for the disease, and should be taken if 
one is in a malaria region. Draining of swamps and ponds, and 
the elimination of all stagnant water is the surest method of get- 
ting rid of the pest, the mosquito. Such campaigns are usually 
carried on locally. Where rain barrels are used, sprinkle coal oi! 
iu the water to kill the wiggle tails and thus prevent mosquitos. 


Control of Insects; Poison Sprays; Protection of Birds 


Methods of combatting insect pests are numerous, many 
of which have been mentioned earlier. 

Co-operation by farmers and truck gardeners is one of the 
most effective if the pest occurs in large numbers. But to do 
this effectively, it is necessary that one know the habits, charac- 
teristics, and life cycle of the insect to be exterminated. In 
some cases clean cultivation, fall plowing, and rotation of crops 
will prove beneficial. Care should be taken to not plant crops 
on soil known to be infected with insects which feed on that 
particular crop. If the space to be covered is not too large, 
there are many effective insecticides which may be used. Some 
may be prepared at home, but as most of them are on the 
market, unless they are required in quantities it is often 
cheaper and more satisfactory to buy them already prepared. 
There are two classes of insecticides—known as external or 
contact poisons and internal or stomach poisons. The former 
are effective in cases where the pest has a delicate, thin body 
covering, while the latter must be resorted to when the former 
is not effective. 

Paris green is one of the most useful of the internal poisons, 
and may be used in the dry form, or in a solution. The latter is 
applied as a spray, and is made by using a pound of Paris 
green, a pound of lime with seventy-five to one hundred gallons 
of water. The strength of the solution must be varied for the 
plants to be sprayed, delicate foliage requiring the weaker 
solution. 

Arsenate of lead is less harmful to growing plants, and 
quite as effective as Paris green if properly used. It is usually 
in a paste or putty form, and must be worked in a little water 
before being added to the spray tank. 

London purple was at one time much used but is no longer 
recommended, as it is almost impossible to get it pure, and if 
adulterated, is apt to be caustic and burn tender plants. , 

Arsenate of copper is less readily procured than Paris 
green, but is more rapid in its effects. 

White arsenate is dangerous when used alone in solutions, 
but is excellent to prepare poisoned baits for cut worms, and 
grasshoppers. 


24 FIRST QUARTER 


Arsenate of lime is made by boiling one pound pure white 
arsenic, two pounds lump lime, and three gallons of water. 
Dilute with two hundred gallons of water before using as a 
spray. 

Some have raised objections to using arsenical prepara- 
tions on vegetables soon to be eaten, but experiments have 
shown, that vegetables so sprayed are by no means dangerous. 
Gillette has shown that a person would have to eat twenty- 
eight cabbages at one time to get enough poison to harm him, 
if the cabbages were sprayed in the ordinary way. 

Lime is one of the best aids of the farmer in preventing 
insects. It is especially effective against soft, moist insects. 
It kills by contact, by burning holes in their bodies. It is useful 
in combatting many larvae, slugs, and snails. 

Gas lime is especially good for use on ground infested with 
white grubs. It should be applied in the fall after the crop ‘is 
out, at the rate of four barrels to about one hundred square 
feet of ground, or one and one-half tons to the acre. 

Heillebore is less dangerous than insecticides containing 
arsenic, hence is often recommended for vegetables which will 
be eaten soon. It is used for slugs, cabbage worms, and related 
pests. Use as a spray, one-half an ounce to two gallons of 
water. 

Of the contact poisons, kerosene emulsion is perhaps the 
best for such pests as plant lice, plant bugs, and soft-bodied 
insects. It is made by using two gallons of kerosene, one-half 
pound of whale oil soap, and one gallon of water, one quart of 
soft soap may be substituted for the whale oil soap. This 
emulsion should be diluted with from fifteen to twenty parts 
water. Sometimes a stronger solution may be used to advan- 
tage. One disadvantage in using this remedy, is that it is 
necessary that it come in contact with the pest, and this necessi- 
tates spraying the under sides of the leaves. 

Carbolic acid emulsion is prepared by using one gallon of 
water, one pound of soap, one-half gallon of crude carbolic 
acid. This must be diluted with from twenty-five to fifty parts 
of water. It is used against root maggots, on corn, cabbage, 
onions, etc. 

Formalin is recommended in treatment of the potato scab. 
Use eight ounces to fifteen gallons of water. . 

Both hot and cold water are effective insecticides. Ice-cold 
water is especially good in treating plant lice, while water 
heated to a temperature of one undred fifty can be applied to 
plants with little damage to the plant but much to the pests. 

There is still another class of insecticides which kill by 


FIRST QUARTER P 25 


suffocating the pests. Pyrethiwm has been carefully tested and 
found to be very effective against certain forms of aphides, 
small plant bugs, and household pests. 

Tobacco comes under this third class, and will be effective 
in certain cases but is being less used than formerly. Nicotine 
extracts are growing in favor, and are good to use against 
aphides, white fly, thrips, and other soft-bodied bugs in green 
houses. 

Sulphur is applied either alone as a specific against the 
red spider, it is mixed with air slacked lime, or with the kerosene 
soap emulsion. 

Note.—This list is by no means a complete one—it is merely 
suggestive, and it 1s hoped that the student will be interested 
enough to read up in various farm journals and compile a more 
complete list of insecticides needed in his neighborhood. 


~ Natural Foes of Insect Pests 


‘Two of the greatest foes to garden pests are chickens and 
toads. A flock of chickens or turkeys will do more to clean 
out grubs and related pests from a field than many expensive 
contrivances. Toads also help the farmer in his fight, and for 
this reason should be protected. 

Most birds are insectivorous and should for this reason be 
protected. This is also true of reptiles. 

Against locusts, turkeys are especially effective. Pigs are 
very fond of white grubs, and if turned into a field will soon 
rid it of these pests. Chickens, if allowed to do so, will often 
follow a plow all day, feasting on the grubs as they are plowed 
up. The Tachina fly, wasps, mites, and predaceous ants are also 
enemies of the white grub. 

Ducks are fond of the asparagus beetle, and are valuable 
aids in ridding one’s garden of this pest. 

But in his fight on pests of garden and farm, the farmer 
is often aided by a class of helpers of which he too often knows 
nothing. These are insects known as natural enemies, and 
either devour, or prey upon as parasites, upon the garden or 
field pests. This is true in the case of the cabbage worm, which 
has a natural enemy known as Pteromalus puparum, a fly-like 
creature. It is also parasitized by what is known as Apanteles 
glomeratus. The natural enemy of the cucumber beetles is the 
Celatoria diabiotical, a small fly-like creature which grows as a 
maggot within the body of the beetle, and kills it when it issues. 

More than thirty species of insects prey upon the potato 
beetle, the Lebia grandis, being one of the most important. 


26 FIRST QUARTER 


Beneficial Insects 


Beneficial insects have been touched upon in the preceding 
topic, and may be properly divided into two classes—those 
which feed externally upon their prey, and those which live in 
the bodies of their hosts. 

The lady bug is perhaps of the most valuable of predaceous 
insects. They are especially valuable in destroying aphids, and 
scale insects. They also devour numerous forms of soft-bedied 
larvae. 

The fiery ground beetle, as well as several other forms of 
ground beetles, live at the expense of the larvae of other beetles, 
cut worms, and various forms of caterpillars. The Lebia is 
a good example of this, in that it follows the Colorado beetle 
everywhere, and does much to limit its numbers. Soldier bugs 
live off moths and soft larvae. Robber flies, spiders, daddy-long- 
legs, and syrphus are among the insects which feed off of other 
insects. The latter are especially useful in destroying aphids. 
Mites and wasps may also be considered in the list of insects 
which prey upon other insects. 

The parasite enemies of insects cannot be reckoned upon 
as of special value in ridding one’s garden of noxious insects, 
because too often they are too slow in action to prevent imme- 
diate damage being done to one’s garden, but they are useful 
in preventing insects from increasing to damage crops in future 
years. 

It is in the Hymenoptera family that such creatures are 
most often found. They are usually dainty and wasp-like. | 

The chalcis fly, the braconids, the egg parasites, and, the 
ichneumon flies are of this type. So useful did the Apanteles 
glomeratus prove in combatting the cabbage worm that in i883 
the United States Government introduced it into this country. 
It has since proved very effective. 

Probably the most valuable ally the farmer has in fighting 
insects are the birds. They may be divided into three classes: 
first those that are entirely, or prefer to be, carniverous, that is 
that feed upon animal food, such as insects in their various 
stages. The robin, thrush, kinglet, black-billed cuckoo, blue 
bird, scarlet tanager, pewees, bobolink, and woodpeckers are 
among this class. The second class include those that eat both 
animal and vegetable matter. These are the cat bird, brown 
thrush, chipping sparrow, marsh robin, white-bellied nut-hatch, 
and purple grackle. The third class are those that prefer a 
vegetable or seed diet are the thistle bird, finches, and the indigo 
birds 


FIRST QUARTER 27 


The young of birds require a great amount of food, and 
most of them are fed on insects. By keeping a careful check 
on two sparrows, it was found they carried over 3000 cater- 
pillars to their nest in one week. A young robin was fed sixty 
eathworms in one day, while the owner of a pair of young 
European jays says they were fed a half million caterpillars in 
a single season. With such appetites as these to cater to, is it 
any wonder the farmer feels he should protect the birds at 
any cost? 


BENEFICIAL INSECTS 


Those of Commercial Value: Bees, Silk Worm, 


After the study we have made of injurious insects we are 
apt to think of all insects as pests. This is far from true. The 
census of 1910 shows that bees produced $10,000,000 of honey 
and $2,000,000 worth of wax in that year. But this was about 
only one-half of the total amount for most of the bees are kept 
in small swarms by farmers who gave no accounting of the 
honey or wax they received. $25,000,000 would perhaps be a 
nearer true total. It is estimated that at least 1,000,000 people 
in the United States keep bees, and probably 5,000 who make 
of it a life work. 

Yet we must not judge the value of the bee to the farmer 
only by the amount of wax and honey it produces. The bee 
is the chief agent forthe pollination of fruit trees and certain 
farm crops.- Without bees, there would be less fruit and that 
of an inferior quality. A famous apple grower in New Jersey 
says he has fifty colonies of bees and is adding to them all the 
time for he’d as soon be without a spray pump as a bee hive. 
Every man who makes fruit growing a business, acknowledges 
the value of bees in his work. Even the cranberry growers of 
Cape Cod, Massachusetts have discovered the value of bees and 
are putting bees among their vines. Viewed from this standpoint, 
bees perhaps add a great deal more to the weather of our nation 
than we at first give them credit for doing. The subject of bee 
raising is too complicated to be gone into. here, but it is possible 
and profitable for every farmer to have a few hives of bees at 
little cost or trouble to himself. The industrious little fellows 
more than pay for their keep in honey alone, without consider- 
ing the service they render fruit and crops. 

Our principal source of silk is from the mulberry feeding 
moth. It is a moth of ashy white color with a body about one- 
half inch in length, the female being somewhat larger than the 
male. The larva is hairless, ashy grey or cream in color. The 


rere 


cise ea 


Sy 


28 FIRST QUARTER 


female lays about 500. eggs, then dies. These eggs hatch and 
form the larvae which in turn pass into the pupa state. The 
larvae spin the cocoons with which they inclose themselves. 
This is the silk of commerce, and when unwound the average 
cocoon will consist of a silk tread 800 to 1200 yards long. These 
threads or filiments are later spun into the silk thread of com- 
merce. About two or three weeks after the cocoon is formed, 
the pupa form is ready to emerge. If it does, the silk is ruined, 
and to prevent this the cocoons are put into boiling hot water to 
kil] the pupa. If the pupa is allowed to live and emerge, it lays 
the eggs which form the larvae. The silk worm in the larvae 
stage lives on the leaves of the mulberry tree. It like the bee, 
is an insect very helpful to man. 


Insects that Destroy Pests; Lady-Bug, Beetles, Dragon Flies, Etc. 


The lady bug or lady bird as it is sometimes called is of 
service to man. The most common species is red and has thirteen 
spots on its back. The larvae of the lady bug feed upon the 
scale forms of insects that are found on our forests and fruit 
trees. Its family name is coccinellidae, or lady beetles. The 
adults are short, oval, with underside flattened. The larvae are 
very voracious and feed upon insects. They prey upon the 
Colorado potato beetle, and other pests. The lady bugs are 
among the most beneficial insects to man. Indeed so- beneficial 
are they that they were imported into California to combat the 
San Jose Scale, and almost destroyed the cottony cushion scale. 
The nine-spotted lady bug feeds upon plant lice. It is about 4 
inch long. It has a black head and body and orange wings with 
nine black spots on them. 

The two spotted ladybird is also common. It is smaller and 
has but one black spot on each wing. These beetles help keep 
the lice from melon vines, also the aphis from peach trees. The 
spotted ladybird is dark pink with black spots on the thorax and 
ten on the wing covers. It is often found on corn. The lady- 
birds which feed upon scales are usually smaller and are black, 
sometimes spotted. Under no circumstances should they ever 
be killed. . 

The dragon fly sometimes called snake feeder or snake 
doctor also does his part in ridding our gardens of insects. He 
feeds upon the mosquito for the most part, and in the early 
evening may be seen darting here and there after them. The 
larvae are aquatic and distinctly predaceous, feeding on aquatic 
animals. 

The adults catch insects in flight. The eggs are laid close 
to the water’s edge, or even under the surface of the water. 


After passing the larvae stage they crawl out of the water, the 
| 


FIRST QUARTER 29 


nymphal case splits along the center line of the back, and the 
adult fly emerges. Their wings expand gradually and in about 
one-half hour they fly. They have various names, being known 
as mosquito hawks, snake feeders, snake doctors, and the Devil’s 
darning needle. They. are regarded now as a very useful insect. 


Parasites; Braconids, Ichneumons; Protection of Beneficial 
Insects 

There are still other forms of life which help man destroy 
his pests. These are parasites, and live within or on the body 
of their victims. Many such live on the destructive larvae. The 
Ichneumon fly, a wasp like creature which varies from a fraction 
of an inch to an inch or two in length, is of this sort. Some lay 
- their eggs in the body of the larvae. Others lay their eggs near 
the larvae, and when they hatch the young feed upon the worm. 

The Tachinid fly is another interesting insect that helps hold 
many of the shade tree pests in check. The syrphus fly lays its 
eggs near the larvae of plant lice and does much to hold it in 
check. The ichneumon fly has a boring apparatus at the hind 
end of the abdomen. This it uses to fasten its eggs in the body 
of its victim. 

The tomato worm is one of the pests destroyed by parasites. 
The eggs are laid in the body of the worm, and then when the 
grubs or larvae gnaw their way to the surface the tomato worm 
is killed. 

The Proctotrupidae are largely egg parasites, that is they 
lay their eggs in the eggs of other animals and when they hatch 
destroy their host. The tent caterpillar is held in check by the 
ichneumonida. It lays its eggs in the cocoon of the host and 
its larvae develop in the pupa, which dies when the parasite eggs 
hatch. 

The Braconidae parasitize the plant lice, while the species 
Apanteles glomeratus is a parasite of the common cabbage worm. 

About all that we can say in regard to the protection of 
beneficient insects is that we should not deliberately destroy 
them.’ Occasionally the attempt has been made to import arti- 
ficially parasitic forms of pest destroyers. It has been suc- 
cessful in but few cases. Weather conditions—moisture, heat, 
cold, and various other factors enter so largely into the success 
of such an undertaking that it is an uncertain venture. The 
Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture is undertaking such a project in its fight upon the gypsy 
moth. At least ten or twelve species must be introduced and 
colonized successfully to make the work a thorough success, but 
since no other means of combatting the moth is known, it will 
be worth the time and trouble ultimately. 


30 FIRST QUARTER 


Project 


1. Make an insect case or vivarium. 
2. If practicable make a collection of insect pests. Use 
cyanide jar or gasoline to kill insects. 


A FRUITS AND FRUIT TREES 
Fruit Trees of District, Imported Fruits 

One of the most valuable crops of the United States is 
the fruit crop, and of this crop the apple is easily the leader. | 

Among the fruits common to this region are: apple, 
peach, pear, plum, cherry, apricot, quince, blackberries, dew- 
berries, raspberries, strawberries, mulberries, grapes, currents, 
and many others. Such fruits as lemons, oranges, grape fruit, 
and many others are so well known and universally used in 
this district that it is with an effort that we look on them as 
imported rather than local fruits. 


The Apple—Parts, Relation of Fruit to Flower 


The apple is one of the most common fruits of this region. 
It consists mainly of three parts, skin, meat, and core, the - 
latter containing the seeds. The fruit is the calyx of the flower 
developed. 

Along with the pear and quince the apple is classed as a 
pome fruit. The flesh of the pome fruit is the enlarged calyx 
tube, which unites with the ovary or core, and the edible part of 
the pome is the developed calyx. 


History of the Apple. 

No one knows for sure whence came the apple. Our first 
recorded history shows that apples were then a common fruit. 
Apple trees are found wild both in North America and in 
Europe. Experts think that the apple tree however, is a native 
of the region around the Caspian Sea, and Southeast Europe 
Even before the Ayrian migrations; it had probably spread 
westward. But in the West, especially China and Japan it has 
been cultivated but recently. It seems to have followed the 
course of western civilization. The early fruit was perhaps 
crude compared to the apple we know today. It was early 
cultivated by the Indians, for some of the orchards of the Five 
Nations Indians remain in New York State at the present time. 
These were seedlings said to have been raised from the seeds 
of apples missionaries took into the interior with them. As 
early as 1639 apples were picked from trees planted in Boston 
harbor on Governor’s Island. Governor John Endicott of 
Massachusetts Colony had his apple orchard and in 1644 five 
hundred of his trees were destroyed by fire. 


FIRST QUARTER 31 


But the early apple was grown for drinking rather than 
eating as the enormous amount of cider made in those days 
shows. 

In 1753 began the modern accurate naming of plants, the 
apple then was called Pyrus Malus. Pyrus is the group name 
for pears, apples and quinces, while Malus is me Latin name for 
apple. 

Varieties of Apples; Summer, Fall and Winter Varieties. 

There are many varieties grown in this region. Among 
the early summer apples are: Yellow Transparent, Leveland 
_ Raspberry, Early Harvest, Red June, Early Ripe, Henry Clay, 
and Williams FEary Red. Among the summer apples are 
Stark, Summer Queen, Duchess, Yellow Horse, Maiden Blush, 
and Wilson Red June. Fall apples are: Patten Greening, 
Fall Pippin, Rambo, Wolf River, and Wealthy. The early 
winter varieties include Tolman Sweet, Roman Stem, R. I. 
Greening, Wagener, and Fameuse. Among winter apples we 
find the Northern Spy, Baldwin, Smoke House, Banana, Belle- 
flower, (Yellow), Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Stark King David, 
Roman Beauty, Golden Winesap, Paradise Winter Sweet, and 
many others. Among the later winter apples are York Im- 
perial, White Pippin, Jeniton, Champion, Stark, Winesap, Willow 
Twig, Stark Delicious, and Black Ben Davis, besides others too 
numerous to name. 

Picking, Storing and Marketing Apples 

One of the chief reasons of a great deal of waste on farms 

of fruit is because fruit picking time comes when the farmer 
is busy with other farm fall duties. For this reason, much 
of the fruit is left to careless pickers, or not gathered at all. 
If intended for winter keeping or shipment, fruit should be 
hand picked, then packed in boxes or barrels, if for shipment. 
Some fruit growers use much care in their boxing of fruit, 
and consequently receive fancy market prices. If stored for 
winter keeping, apples and other fruits should be placed in 
cold but not freezing, dark, well ventilated bins. Sorting 
should be done at the time of picking and usually should be 
done in four lots. The first will include only the sound, per- 
fect fruits, usually intended for fancy packing and fine market- 
ing. The second will include sound, but imperfectly shaped 
fruit. The third class will be the seconds, usually used for 
immediate cooking, and the fourth will be the culls, usually 
refuse fruit. The question of market varies in different 
localities. The average farmer will usually find a ready market 
near his home, while fruit growers who have fruit in quan- 
tities usually ship to commission men in the large cities. 


Ay 


32 FIRST QUARTER 


Storing in the Home for Winter Use 


For home use, apples may be stored in boxes in a cool, moist 
cellar. If intended for late keeping the temperature should be 
40° F. or lower. 

In a cellar where there is a furnace or in a warm attic the 
fruit is liable to shrivel because the air is too dry. If necessary 
to use such a storage place, wrap each apple in paper and keep 
in a closed barrel. The fruit must be sorted now and then, unless 
the trees have been most carefully sprayed and the fruit very 
carefully picked and graded. Such care is not necessary in cold 
storage. An outside cellar if properly ventilated is a good storage 
place. 

In cramped city quarters, the question of home storage is a 
more serious one, and usually it is not desirable to undertake to 
store more than will meet immediate needs. 


Apple Growing Regions 


Central Europe, Canada, and the United States are the homes 
of the apple. However, apple-culture is beginning in New 
Zealand and parts of Australia. They are beginning to export 
to the continent of Europe and the trade promises to increase, 
especially with South America. In Europe, the trees are more 
carefully pruned and cared for than in most parts of the United 
States. Here we usually let the tree assume what shape it will, 
and do not prune for the development of fruiting wood. 

The apple regions of North America are in southern Canada 
and the northern part of the United States. This extends south- 
ward into the eastern mountain regions. 

In Nova Scotia, Prince Edward’s Island, and New Bruns- 
wick, Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia, we find the chief 
Canadian apple orchards. 

In the eastern United States it is found in the Hudson Valley, 
western New York, New England Baldwin belt, New Jersey, 
Delaware, Shenandoah-Cumberland district, in Virginia, some 
regions of Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the mountain 
regions of Georgia. Further west, we find it in some parts of 
Ohio, Kentucky, and Michigan. In Illinois we find it in the 
southern Illinois apple region and the Mississippi Valley region 
of Illinois. 

Apples are also found in the Ozark region, the Arkansas 
Valley of Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Montana, cer- 
tain districts of Washington as the Yakuma Valley, Wenatchee, 
north central een district, Spokane and Walla Walla 
districts. 


FIRST QUARTER 33 


In Oregon the apple districts are in the Hood River Valley, 
Rogue River Valley and other districts. 

In Idaho the apple districts are:—Payette, Boise Valley, 
Twinfalls, and Lewiston. 

California, Wisconsin, and Minnesota also produce apples to 
some extent. 


Comparative Study of Cher Fruits Pear, Quince, Peach, Plum 


The pear is not as extensively grown as the apple, but is a | 


paying crop if well cared for. It grows best in deep rich loam, in 
full exposure to light and air. Pears are more subject to inroads 
from pests and diseases than the apple, therefore require more 
attention. Trees two years old are best for planting and are 
planted the same as the apple. The same care in fertilizing and 
prunning are necessary. Trees are planted twenty to twenty-five 
feet apart. Many pears are grafted upon quince stock, and may 
be grown as dwarfs instead of standard. 

The pears most generally grown are: Summer, Bartlett, 
Clapp, Giffard, Autumn, Seckel, Bosc, Kieffer, Winter, Hovey, 
and Lawrence. 

Pears should be picked while still hard but fully grown, just 
when the color begins to change. Then they should be placed 
in a cool, close, dark place, in trays one layer deep and covered 
with a wool blanket. Sometimes they are sold from cold storage 
in boxes, or one-half barrel casks. 

The San Jose scale and the pear psylla are especially injuri- 
ous to pear trees. Lime and sulphur spray checks the former. 
The pear tree psylla is a minute brown aphis like insect which 
flies about the trees in early spring and lays its eggs on.the leaves 
and tender twigs. From the eggs a flat aphis hatches which feed 
upon the tree juices. Lime and sulphur are recommended but 
no satisfactory control has been found. — 

Leaf blight and fire blight are two diseases destructive to 
pears. The former may be controlled by Bordeaux mixture, 
using just before the leaves open, just after the petals drop, and 
twice more at two weeks intervals. 

The fire blight is a bacterial disease much like smallpox in 
the human body. It is more apt to prove troublesome in hot, 
damp weather. If the trees are attacked, the diseased branches 
should be cut away at once, or the: whole tree will die in a few 


days. Lime and sulphur spray is recommended as well as the . 


Bordeaux_mixture. 

~The quince has not grown in demand as has other fruits. It 
is used only in a cooked state and largely for flavoring other less 
tasty fruits. To grow it successfully a deep rich strong soil is 
necessary. It grows best near cesspools or poultry yards. Strong 


ee 


a 


34 FIRST QUARTER 


two year old trees should be planted. This may be grown from 
cuttings or grafted upon apple roots. They should be pruned 
much as the apple or pear. They should not be planted in turf, 
but require frequent cultivation. 

The quince may be pruned to the tree or bush form, the 
latter being better for the amature fruit grower, as it is more 
easily sprayed and cared for. When three to five years old the 
- tree should begin to bear, and with care are long lived. Uncared 
for they are short lived. The Orange, Rhea’s and Champion are 
the chief varieties. The Orange is the more common but the 
Rhea’s is larger. They are usually sold in one-half peck baskets 
and keep well for shipment, if carefully packed. For retail trade 
loose packing is recommended. The diseases and insects which 
attack the apple and pear are common to the quince. The reme- 
dies are the same. 

The peach may be profitably grown in many parts of the 
United States from Canada to Georgia. The peach grows best 
in a thin soil on elevated land with full exposure. The land 
should be prepared by deep plowing under of green crops and 
by harrowing before the trees are set. Trees should be selected 
for planting from the same region where they are to be grown. 
Trees of medium or small size should be selected. The tree may 
be trimmed back to a single cane, others trim it back to within 
two or three inches of the bud. At the end of the first season 
there should be a conical formed tree with three or four main 
branches, starting one to three feet from the ground. When 
they begin bearing the years that the buds are winter killed should 
be selected for pruning time. All wounds more than one inch 
across should be brushed with linseed oil. Peach orchards if 
well cared for last ten to twelve years. In the north the peach 
averages three crops out of five years. 

To be of best quality the peach must ripen upon the trees, 
‘therefore it requires great care in handling. 

New varieties of peaches appear every year but the stand- 
ards are: Champion, Mountain Rose, Crawford’s ae SE Craw- 
ford’s Late, Alberta, and Fitzgerald. 

The San Jose scale and peach borer are its two greatest 
enemies. The later is a small wasp like moth with transparent 
wings. Its eggs are laid on the trunk near the ground. It may 
be recognized by the masses of gum which exude from the bark, 
- and with a knife one may dig out the fat white larvae. 

Peach curl and peach yellows are two funguous diseases. 
Lime and sulphur are recommended for both but is not a sure 
remedy for the yellows. If badly affected with the latter, the 
trees had best be removed, for they never entirely recover from it. 
Fertilizers containing large amounts of potash and phosphoric 


FIRST QUARTER 35 


acid should be used in young orchards and cultivation made deep. 

There are three varieties of plums common in the United 
States. They are the European, Japanese, and American. The 
first include the blue plums, Lombards, Damson, etc. The 
Japanese include the Burbank, Abundance and Wickson, with the 
Climax and October Purple. The American plums grows wild. 
Among the best varieties are the Weaver, Hawkeye, Wayland, 
Wild Goose, Moreman, and Reed. 

For most varieties a strong, moist but well drained soil is 
essential. The trees must have a good circulation of air and 
sunshine. Strong one year old trees budded upon native stock 
give the best results. They are pruned and planted in the same 
way as the apple. Clean cultivation is essential. Potash and 
phosphoric acid make good fertilizers. The European varieties 
are less hardy than the American and require much care. They 
are attacked by the peach borer, and the plum curculio. The 
latter attacks the skin, makes a crescent cut in it, and here lays its 
eggs. The larvae hatch, feed on the fruit, cause it to fall, then 
the larvae enter the ground where they remain till next year. 
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture and paris green as for the 
codling moth is recommended, just before the flowers open, after 
they have fallen, and twice after at two week intervals. 

Three diseases destructive to plums are black knot, leaf 
blight and brown fruit rot. Black knot may be checked by prun- 
ing the affected parts. Spraying as for the plum curculio is 
recommended, but all trees in the region must be sprayed to make 
this effective. 

The brown fruit rot is a fungus disease that attacks the 
mature fruit, causing it to rot, and covers it with grey dust like 
spores. Bordeaux mixture is recommended. 

The Japanese plum bears in three to five years, but is not 
quite hardy. It is often propagated upon peach or native plum 
stocks. 

The American plum is hardy and is being crossed with the 
European and Japanese to secure size and flavor. It is some- 
times attacked by the peach borer or leaf curl. Dilute Bordeaux 
mixture is recommended (4 copper sulphate, 6 lime, and 100 
gallons of water). 


Propagation of Fruit Trees 


If we plant the seeds of many plants, the resulting plant will 
be like the parent, but this does not hold good among fruit trees. 
Seeds planted result in what are known as seedlings, and the 
fruit from it will be small and of an inferior quality. But in 
order to secure fruit such as we wish, we may resort to grafting. 
This means bringing the cambium layer of a vigorously growing 


36 FIRST QUARTER 


seedling into contact with the cambium layer in a stem of a 
similar kind of tree. After fitting the parts closely together, bind 
them with cotton yarn which has been coated with grafting wax. 
Smear the wax thoroughly over the whole joint to make sure that 
it is air tight. Do your grafting in February, and put your grafted 
tree in damp sand until you are ready to set it out. 

Thus, if we wish a Grimes Golden apple, we can take a 
branch from a Grimes Golden tree, graft it onto the seedling of 
any apple, and the resulting tree will bear Grimes Golden apples © 
such as the parent tree bore, from which the cutting was made. 
In this way, many improvements have been made in our present 
day fruit trees. 


Seeds, Seedlings, Grafting, Different Methods, Why Necessary 


In general, apple trees raised from seeds bear little 
resemblance to the apple from which the seeds were taken. Trees 
so raised are known as seedlings and the fruit of such are 
usually very inferior in size and quality. However, some seeds 
if inbred, may produce apples identical with the mother tree, and 
such are called reproductions of the mother variety. The only 
reason that apples and other orchard fruits do not come true to 
seed is because it has not been found necessary to fix the type 
by a long period of selection as has been done in certain flowers. 
Grafting settles the question much quicker and easier. 

Grafting in most cases help us to reproduce any given 
variety of the apple. There is little difference between budding 
and grafting. The former consists in inserting but one bud into 
the growing plant, while grafting consists of inserting a branch 
with several buds. The stock is the growing plant, the cion or 
scion is the inserted plant. Most dicotyledonous plants as 
apples, legumes, evergreens, cacti, and members of the potato 
family have been grafted. Monocotyledenous plants such as 
grasses, lilies, etc., have never been successfully grafted: 

There are so many ways of grafting it is not practical to 
enter. upon a discussion of them here. They are: Whip or 
tongue grafting, root, cleft, veneer, side, splice, saddle, bridge, 
crown, and terminal bud grafting. If interested in any of the 
kinds, government bulletins may be obtained describing each 
fully. 

Grafting may be necessary:— Ist To change the character 
of the plant by modifying the wood, leaves, or fruit. 

_ 2nd. To bring together two sexes of monolcious plants in the 
same trees in order that fruit may be produced. 

3rd. To restore an old or worn out tree by infusing new 
sap and new wood. 


FIRST QUARTER 37 


4th. To produce flowers, fruit and branches on parts of trees 
which lack them. 

5th. To propagate many plants which can be reproduced in 
no other way. 

(See earlier work for grafting and budding.) 


List of Trees Propagated by Budding 


1. Rose 5: Cherry 
2a Pear 6. Quince 
3. Apple . 4. Peach 
4. Plum 


Care of Fruit Trees 


For orchard, the average farmer will usually work out his 
own scheme of caring for his trees. Whatever plan is followed, 
it must include replacing trees that have served their day of 
usefulness, also replacing unprofitable trees, cultivating the young 
trees, spraying for various diseases and insects, and in general 
building up and keeping in good shape, the plot of ground he has 
set aside for his fruit trees. 


‘The Orchard, Soil, Cultivation, Planting Distances; Pruning, 
Why Necessary; Time to Prune, Method of Pruning 


Many farmers are now awakening to the value of good 
orchards, and a general revival of interest in fruits and fruit 
culture seems to be eminent. It has been proved that one 
vigorous bearing fruit tree will yield more cash profit than 
an acre of hay, two will yield more than an acre of corn, and 
three more than an acre of potatoes. When farmers wake to 
these facts, they will not begrudge the land given over to or- 
chards.. The planting of a young orchard is very important. 
Spring is the best time. The roots of the young tree should be 
pruned carefully. A hole large enough to admit the roots 
without cramping should be dug. The tree should be put two or 
three inches deeper than the former soil line on the stock. 

Trees may be planted about one hundred to the acre. 
When the young tree is first set out, if the season is dry, fre- 
quent watering may be necessary. Judicious pruning is neces- 
sary to secure good strong sturdy, well shaped trees. Pruning 
should be done just above a leaf bud, pointing out from the 
tree. The second season, trees should be pruned lightly to 
secure a good root system. 

A young orchard requires more or less cultivation. Around 
each tree, the earth should be kept mulched, to prevent to rapid 
evaporation of moisture. While trees are small some farmers 
sow small grains or grasses between their young trees. Farmers 


38 FIRST QUARTER 


who wish to secure good sturdy trees must be on the lookout 
for various insects and diseases that often attack young trees. 

In discussing the various fruits we have mentioned the 
different kinds of soil best suited to each kind. It varies from 
the clay loam or the strong moist loam required for the apple 
to the thin light required for the peach. Most fruits do not like 
wet feet, hence the land should be well drained. Wet soil in- 
vites various diseases. 

Pruning has also been discussed at some length. In general 
it may be said that all trees require pruning if the best fruit is 
to be obtained. Yet if not done wisely great damage may be 
done. ; 

Trees should not be planted so close that heavy prunin 
is necessary. When trees are planted but 20 or 25 feet apart, 
it may be best to cut half of them out, prune from the top and 
force out new growth from lower levels. 

Do not cut off all the sprouts inside the tree. If a few of 
these are allowed to grow each year, a new head is soon formed 
and the old wood may be cut out. The time of pruning varies 
‘under different conditions. The young tree should be pruned 
when first set out, or if the buds are winter killed, that year 
may be a good time if heavy pruning seems necessary. Pruning 
may be done at any time if the tree shows a diseased condition 
and the need warants drastic measures. Usually the early spring 
is the best time for general pruning work, six or eight weeks 
before growth is resumed. 

The methods of pruning depend wholly upon the result de- 
sired, and may vary from merely rubbing off buds and sprouts 
with the open hand, to removing heavy wood with saws and 
pruning hooks. Pruning shears are best used on young trees. 
All large cuts should be painted over with linseed oil. 


Insect Enemies of Fruit Trees 


A partial discussion of insect enemies has been made under 
the various kinds of fruit. 

In general there are two kinds—-those that attack the fruit 
and those that harm the tree or foliage. In the apple tree pests 
we find the codling moth, fruit miner, maggot, curculio and 
weevil which attack the fruit. The bud moth, click, beetle, leaf 
roller, canker worm, measuring worm, tussock moth, webworm, 
tent caterpillar, gipsy moth, various forms of aphis, scales and 
leaf hoppers attack the tree or foliage. There are also various 
kind of borers, flea beetles, mites, tree bugs, weevils and crickets 
that also are harmful. 

Pear and Quince pests include slugs, pear psylla, thrips, 
mites, borers, beetles, and scales. 


FIRST QUARTER 39 


Plum pests are the curculio, gouger, borer, sawfly, beetles, 
louse, aphis, scales and many others. 

Peach pests include beetles, worms, sazflies, scales, aphis 
and .others. 

Funguous Diseases; Spraying. 

A fungus is one of the lower order of plant life. It differs 
from plants of the higher order by having no flowers, and by 
producing no chlorophyll which gives the green coloring matter 
to leaves. Its seeds are known as spores, and its roots which are 
very fine filiaments are known as spawn. It is the mycelium which 
damages trees it attacks. These make their way through the 
woods and break down the cells and thus destroy the plant. The 
seeds or spores are very tiny. There are two types of fungi— 
those which attack living plants and are called parasites, and 
those which live off dead matter called saprophytes. Moulds 
and mildews are fungi but differ from the greater number of 
fungi by not penetrating into the host but by merely living main- 
ly on the surface of the host. 

Fungi form two kinds of spores—summer and winter, and 
spraying depends upon which spore one wishes to kill. To kill 
summer spores one must spray at the very first sign of the 
disease. However, the disease may often be merely checked and 
repeated spraying may be necessary. 

Besides spraying in winter, one must burn all dead leaves, 
shriveled fruit, and pruned branches. All wounds should be 
painted or tarred over, for wounds even very minute are the 
means of access to the tree for the fungi. 

Among the most important fungus diseases may be men- 
tioned the apple scab, black rot and mildew of the grape, fruit 
rot of the peach, leaf blight of the pear and plum, and black 
knot of the plum. 

The presence of these diseases is shown by spots, dis- 
colorations or excrescences scattered over the surface of the 
leaves, branches or tree. If the fruit or leaves are attacked they 
usually drop from the parent tree. The fungus diseases are 
especially hard to control because once the spores are embedded 
in the fiber of the branch or tree the wood itself must be 
destroyed in order to destroy the fungus. Bordeaux mixture or 
lime sulphur spray is recommended. The first spray should 
be used just as the buds are well developed but before they 
have opened into the flower. 

Among apple growers, the fungus diseases most dreaded 
are the bitter rot, cedar rust, and apple blotch. 

The bitter rot winters in old wounds on the branches of 
trees, and as the spores are ripened late in the season, it attacks 


40 | FIRST QUARTER 


the mature fruit. Bordeaux mixture spraying is good, also all 
old wood should be cut out. Black rot is similar to bitter rot and 
should be treated accordingly. 

Cedar rust lives in two different hosts during its life cycle. 
One season it causes excrescences known as cedar apples on the 
red cedar tree. The next year spores develop from these which 
in turn go back into the apple orchard. It causes a peculiar 
orange colored spot on the foliage. The leaves so affected fall 
until the tree may become quite bare. The best cure for this 
is to remove all cedar trees from close proximity to apple 
orchards. If this isn’t possible spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Apple blotch causes brown markings on the fruits, and passes 
the winter as brown cankers on the twigs. Lime sulphur solution 
diluted one to five used in the winter is recommended. 

The lime-sulphur is a commercial solution put out by 


manufacturers. It is recommended that it be used one to eight - 


but experience has shown one to five to be better, and reduces the 
need for more frequént sprayings. 

A mixture of barium and sulphur has lately been put out 
that promises to take the place of the lime sulphur. It does 
not affect the appearance of the fruit as does the latter or 
Bordeaux mixture. However, there seems to be no_ better 
general fungicide than Bordeaux mixture. However it is apt to 
cause a russeting of the skin of fruit as well as to burn the 
leaves of the tree. Lime-sulphur solutions are superior for this 
reason. 

Following are a few of the formulas for well known insect 
and fungi sprays. 


BorDEAUX MIXTURE. 


Chae sulphate (blue stone or blue vitriol) 4 pounds. 
Fresh lump lime 4 pounds. 
Water 50 gallons. 


Sopa BorDEAUX MIXTURE. 


Copper sulphate 4 pounds. 
Caustic soda (soda lye) 1 to 1% paunge 
Water 50 gallons. 


AMMONIACAL COPPER CARBONATE. 


Copper carbonate 5 ounces. 
Ammonia, 26 degrees Baume, 3 pints. 
Water 50 gallons. 


PoTAssIuM SULPHIDE. 


Potassium sulphide 3 ounces. 
Water 10 gallons. 


FIRST QUARTER a 


Dissolve and it is ready to use. Used especially for powdery 
mildew on gooseberries. 


SELF BoILED LIME SULPHUR. 


Fresh stone lime 8 Ibs. 

Sulphur 8 pounds. 

Water 50 gallons. 

Used for peach scab and Brown rot. 

Crown Gall is due to an organism that usually Bie the 
Rosaceae family. No cure is known for it, and plants so infested 
should be destroyed. It manifests itself as swellings which 
form on the roots or crowns of trees. These increase in size 
rapidly, last for one season, decay, and reappear again next year. 

Root rot usually appears in orchards planted in newly cut 
over timber land where oaks have grown. To prevent, do. not 
plant such land as orchards for several years after clearing. 

Apple scab is found in most orchards. It attacks fruit 
and leaves, where it causes large dark velvety black patches. It 
seems to be aggrevated by a late cold, wet spring. 

Among the cherry trees we have Black knot, Leaf Spot, 
and Powdery Mildew the chief fungi diseases. 

Currants suffer from Anthracnose and Cane Blight. 

Among Blackberries and Raspberries we find Anthracnose, 
Cane Blight, Crown Gall, and Orange Rust. 

On. the grape we find Anthracnose, Black Rot, Downy 
Mildew, and Powdery Mildew. 

Peaches suffer from Peach Blight, Brown Rot (especially 
destructive), Frosty Mildew, Leaf Curl, and Peach Scab. The 
Brown Rot may be held in check by spraying with the lime- 
sulphur mixture and lead arsenate—two pounds of the lead 
arsenate to 50 gallons of the mixture. Should be applied about 
three times. 

Pear Blight is one of the chief pear fungi diseases. 

Plum Pockets (much like leaf curl) of plum trees, and 
_ Leaf Spot on Strawberry vines. The latter attacks the leaves of 
strawberry vines, first as a purplish spot, later greyish in color, 
with red margins. If much affected the whole leaf may turn 
red. Plants should be sprayed before flowering and after the 
fruit has gone with Bordeaux mixture. 


he Projects 
yeh are ‘to care for the home orchard or at least two or 
three trees. 
22s, Gollect pictures of dierent varieties of apples and 
other fruits and mount in your booklet. 


42 SECOND QUARTER 


SECOND QUARTER 


HARD WOOD CUTTINGS; DOMESTIC ANIMALS; WATER 
SUPPLY 


Some plants, as we know are reproduced from seeds. This 
is true of most of our flowers and vegetables. Others are propa- 
gated by grafting or budding as our apple, pear, or plum trees. 
Others are reproduced by means of hard wood cuttings. This 
class includes grapes, gooseberries, and currants. Blackberries 
are propagated by shoots from the old plants, as are red rasp- 
berries, while black raspberry plants reproduce themselves by 
the tips of the new canes touching the ground and taking root. 
Strawberries are reproduced by runners. 

The grape is perhaps the easiest propagated of any of our 
fruits. If anew vine touches the ground and is so allowed to 
remain during the growing season, the chances are roots will 
develop at the joint, and if cut back to these roots, a new plant 
is the result which may be transplanted elsewhere. 

This characteristic of the grape vine is taken advantage of 
by nurserymen, to propagate new stock, and most of our grapes 
are obtained by what is known as hard wood cuttings. Such 
cuttings must be made in the winter or late fall when the plant 
is dormant—that 1s, not growing. Often cuttings are made in 
the fall and are kept in a cool moist place till spring when they 
are planted in rows. Such cuttings consist of a section of the 
wood of the last season’s growth with a joint and bud at each end. 
When the cutting is made, it is placed -with the top bud just at the 
ground line. The roots will form from the joint placed under- 
ground while the vine will grow from the protruding bud. 


Grape Vine, Stem, Tendrils, Buds 


The stem.of the grape vine is too well known to need any 
lengthy discussion. We are all familiar with the long, smooth 
stems, covered with spines, hairs, or long pieces of loosened bark. 
These are of great interest to the pomologist, for they help him 
determine the species of grape, but to the average student the 
leaves, tendrils and buds are the most important. 

The leaves are of special importance because upon them de- 
pend the growth of the vine and fruit. Beyond a certain point 
if we diminish the number of leaves we check the vine’s growth, 


= 


SECOND QUARTER 43 


This does not mean, however, that the leaves should not be re- 
moved. Occasionally the growth of leaves is so heavy, too much 
shade for the fruit and vine is made, hence, it 1s necessary to 
cut back some of the leaves. The grape under cultivation seems 
to produce a greater amount of foliage than is necessary for its 
proper growth hence such thinning out is frequently necessary. 

In general grape leaves are heart shaped. The edges of the 
blade are notched. When these notched are small the leaf is 
spoken of as dentated or toothed. When the divisions are 
irregular and sharp it is called cut-toothed. 

All grape leaves while growing are green, but no two varieties 
possess the same shape. Most are divided into three more or 
less regular lobes. Sometimes the veins and petrole are red, while 
this color sometimes extends over much of the leaf, others are 
dark brown. | 

The tendrils are an elongation of the wood fiber of the stem. 
While green and tender they are straight, slightly bent at the 
end, but as the fiber hardens, they draw up into curling masses. 
These tendrils are of great help in enabling the grape to raise 
itself up from the shaded dark places below into the light and air 
where its fruit may mature. These tendrils live but the one 
_ season, but are not like the leaves, shed in the fall or winter. They 
are always placed just opposite a leaf. While of great use to the 
wild grape, tendrils are worse than useless to the cultivated vine, 
and should be removed to keep the vines from becoming 
entangled. | 

The first three or four tendrils borne by the stalk in the 
spring are but the peduncles or flower stalks of the thyrse of 
flowers which later develop into a bunch of grapes. If they do 
not develop into flowers because of lack of heat, light, etc., they 
become tendrils. Hence we can say that a tendril is a barren 
peduncle or a bunch of fruit a productive tendril. Hence, we 
can see the importance of the tendril to the whole plant. 

Buds are embryo plants, for in them are all the elements 
necessary, if removed from the parent plant, to reproduce a separ- 
ate distinctive grape plant. They contain stems and leaves in 
rudimentary form. The buds are never found upon any other 
part of the stem than upon the axils of the leaves. In a wild 
state, these buds never produce but one shoot, but in the cultivated 
grape, a number of shoots may be produced from a bud. But if 
one wishes to produce a strong growth, one vine alone from a 
single bud is best. 

All main buds should be fully developed, especially those 
required for producing fruit because it is only from such buds 
that the best canes and fruits are produced. 


44 SECOND QUARTER 


Nature has tried to protect the bud with bud scales which 
serve to shield the tender bud from the cold of winter. In most 
localities where grapes are grown, this covering is sufficient. In 
others, it is necessary to furnish some artificial protection. The 
disk has five thick glands or lobes which alternate with the sta- 
mens, between them and the base of the ovary. The flowers have 
a fragrance much like that of mignonette. 


Choose Some Good Variety and Make Cuttings 


Perhaps no plant can be more easily propagated by the ama- . 
teur than the grape. Hence the students should make cuttings 
and note their growth. If more ambitious, they may try grafting 
one kind upon another. Many pomologists insist that this is the 
only way to secure a high grade standard grape. The cuttings — 
are made, grown from the bud, and upon this root stalk grafts 
are made. These grafts are less complicated than those on trees 
and may be performed very easily by the average careful student. 

Gooseberries and currants are also reproduced by hard wood 
cuttings. It will be interesting and profitable if the teacher will’ 
have students prepare cuttings of these and have them planted in 
a corner of the school ground. Most small town schools and 
every country school could have its own. experimental station 
where actual laboratory work could be done. Its value to the’ 
school is incalcuable. 

Project 


1. Plan to grow and care for the grape plant. 


FARM ANIMALS OF THE COMMUNITY 


List of Animals Raised in the District 

_ Perhaps the chief place of all domestic animals may be given 
to the horse. To this animal, the cow is a close second. Pigs 
and sheep are also of great importance. Among fowls, the 
chicken ranks first, while ducks, geese, and turkeys are also found 
in almost every barn yard. Pigeons, guineas and various other 
fowls are usually kept as pets or as curiosities rather than as an 
important part of farm life. Bees are found on many farms, 
where fields of clover furnish them abundant honey materials. 
Dogs are no longer the necessary animal on farms they once 
were, when large flocks of sheep ranged over the open prairies. ° 
Yet there are few farms without a dog and often several cats. 
Last, but not least, come the birds, which abound in farm 
orchards. That they are, for the most part, true friends to the 
farmer is fast being recognized throughout the land. ‘These 
various animals will be discussed at length during the following 
work. . 


SECOND QUARTER 45 


Animals of Different Breeds 


Circumstances and conditions play so great a part in deciding 
what animals are raised that no definite list can be given, How- 
ever, among horses we may :find the Arabian, Thoroughbred, 
American, Saddle, Roadster type, Trotter, Pacer, Coach or 
carriage horse type, Hackney, Draft, Percheron, Clydesdale, 
Shire, Belgian, Suffolk, Shetland Pony. 

Among the cattle we may mention the S horthorns, Hereford, 
Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, Sussex, West Highland among the 
beef. Among the dairy type are: Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, 
Guernsey, Ayreshire, Ditch Belled and French Canadian. Among 
the dual purpose are: Red Polled, Devon, Brown Swiss. 

mong the sheep we have the Marino, Rambouillet, South- 
down, Shropshire, Oxford Down, Dorset Horn, Cheviot, Tunis, 
Leicester, and others. 


Approximate Value 

Farm animals make use of various farm crops, such as hay, 
cornstalks, straw, etc., which would be uttéf Waste if they did 
not eat it. Fully ‘one-third of the total digestible nutrients of the 
corns crop remains in the stover after the ears are removed. 
These feeds, eaten by cattle, sheep, and hogs, are converted into 
milk, meat, wool and leather through the agency of the farm 
animals. Another phase of this same advantage is that these food 
products may be fed, andthe resulting food and clothing trans- 


ported at less cost and in less space, where they are needed, than _ 


the originals could have been. Perhaps one of the most direct 
result of keeping farm animals is the fact that manures taken 
from barns and lots where such animals are kept form one of 
the chief means of land improvement. 

We now come to the actual value of farm animals, and pro- 
ducts of farm animals. Since the last few years have been so 
largely influenced by the war, in order that one may have a more 
definite notion of the value of farm stock in normal times, the 
following statistics are taken from 1910. 

In 1910 there were 20,625,432 dairy cows on regular dairy 
farms, with 1,170,338 siich cows not on regular farms. The total 
value of the former was $706,236,307, and of the latter 
$47,000,000. 

The total number of all cattle in the United States was over 
63,600,000, with a value of over $1,500,000,000. The number of 
horses was over 23,000,000, valued at more than $2,500,000,000. 
Number of mules, 4,480,000, valued at $564,766,000. Asses and 
burros, 122,200; value, $14,901,000. The grand total of mules, 
horses, asses and burros being 27,618,242, with a value of over 


$3,085,460,000. 


ce 


46 SECOND QUARTER 


The number of swine for the year 1910 was 59,473,000, with 
a value of $409,414,568. Sheep numbered 52,838,748, with a 
value of $234,664,528. Goats, 3,029,795; value, $6,542,000. 
Making a total valuation of $5,296,421,619. 

The average value per head of dairy cows was about $35. 
The average of all cattle was about $24.50, while that of horses 
was $108.87; of mules, $126.06; asses and burros, $121.94; pigs, 
$6.88 ; sheep, $4.44; goats, $2.16. 

In considering the value of farm animals, it is also well to 
consider the value of their produce as well. Hence, the following 
table of butter, cheese, and milk may be of interest. 

In 1909, 624,764,653 pounds of butter were made in factories 
and 1,619,415,263 in factories and on farms together. In the 
~ same year there was a total of 320,532,181 pounds of cheese made, 
while the same year, 5,813,699,474 gallons of milk were produced. 

In 1910, there were 282,110,164 chickens raised, and 11,027,- 
213 other fowls, making a total of over 488,468 fowls, with a 
total of 1,591,311,371 dozens of eggs produced. From these 
figures, imperfect as they may be, we get some idea of the real 
value in dollars and cents of what our farm animals mean to us. 
Each farmer may have but a few animals of moderate value, but 
the grand total throughout the United States makes one that con- 
stitutes a real part of our national wealth. 


Observational Study of a Cow 


Cattle, according to their zoological classification, are mam- 
malia, as is also man. Mammalia occupy the highest class among 
vertebrates—that is, animals with back bones. Any animal which 
rears its young on its own milk belongs to the mammalia. All 
mammalia are more or less covered with hair. They also are 
more intelligent, hence have larger brains in comparison. Breed- 
ing has changed the general characteristics of cattle until beef 
and dairy cattle vary much in general form as well as in color. 
The greater number of cattle have horns, are covered with hair, 
which varies from stiff, coarse hair to soft, silky hair, found in 
some breeds of dairy cattle. The different features will now be 
discussed separately. 


Body Covering of the Cow 


A cow has a somewhat heavy skin covered with short ham. 
‘Both the texture of skin and hair varies greatly. In beef breeds 
the hair and skin will often be found much coarser and heavier 
than in the dairy breeds. On some breeds, the hair is soft, short 
and smooth, as in the Jersey breed, while on others it is long, 
with a curly tendency, as in the Hereford breed. However, one 
must not take for granted because a certain type is a beef type 


SECOND QUARTER ‘ 47 


that its skin and hair is coarse. Take the Angus, for instance. 
Its Skin i is soft and pliable, and its hair fine. 

. ’ The Galloway breed have long, wavy, silky hair, which pro- 
tect them from the severe winters and make them especially 
well suited to withstand rigorous climates. As a general rule, 
the better breed a cow is, and the truer it runs to that breed, the 
finer and smoother will be its skin and hair. 


a Sense Organs of the Cow 


Perhaps the most noticeable feature of a cow’s face is its 
nose, the shape and color varying in different breeds. It may be 
smooth and straight, as in the Angus, or slightly enlarged and 
upturned, as in the Galloway. The nose tip is not covered with 
hair. The nostrils are large and, in the better breeds, delicately 
shaped. 

The eyes are prominent, usually set wide apart, somewhat 
at the side of the head. The ears are small, medium, or large, 
depending on breed, and are opposite or slightly above the line 
of the eyes. The ears are covered on the outside with hair. The 
color of the inside is often indicative of breed or personal charac- 
teristic of the animal. This is especitlly true of the Jersey. 


Feet and Toes of the Cow 


The cow is an “ungulata” or hoofed animal. This class of 
animals is almost always herbivorous, the canines are rarely well 
developed, the molars numerous, and suited to grinding the food, 
are more or less flattened, and frequently have folded enamel. 

The legs of ungulatee are exclusively locomotor arrange- 
ments, and permit free motion. The clavicles are absent. The 
feet touch the ground only by the tips of the toes, which are 
enclosed in hoofs. The cow belongs to the group known as 
artiodactyla or animals with an even number of toes, while the 
horse belongs to the Perissadactyla or animals which have the 
middle toe developed into a hoof. The cow really walks upon 
her two middle toes, each of which is provided with a hoof, The 
rudimentary toes at the back are digits which have disappeared as 
far as their usefulness is concerned. 

It would be well if the teacher could secure a skeleton of a 
cow’s leg and show how the metacarpals and metatarsals are 
greatly elongated, the ankle and wrist being raised from the 
ground to such a height that they are often confused with elbow 
and knee. The radius and tibia are becoming more developed at 
the expense of the fibula, which 1s becoming rudimentary and the 
ulna, which is often developed throughout its whole length, other 
times only in its upper part, and 1s more or less fused with the 
radius, 


48 SECOND QUARTER 


Parts of the Body, Muzzle, Jaw, Face, Forehead, Withers, 
Shoulders, Loin, Etc. 


In considering the body of the cow we must. realize that 
there is a vast difference between the body shape of a milk type 
and that of the beef type. Also the different breeds of dairy 
cattle differ much from each other just as do*the breeds of 
beef cattle. Hence the following discussion must be general 
in so far as it applies to cattle in general. 

By the muzzle we mean the part that is usually referred to 
as the nose. It is smooth and hairless. . 

The jaz is located below the eye in front of the throat. 

The face is the smooth bony ridge above the muzzle and 
centrally below the eyes. 

The forehead is the smooth plate between the horns, while 
the withers (dairy cow) is the point on the back above the 
shoulders between the neck and the back proper. 

The shoulders are about on a line drawn through the body 
lengthwise between the throat and ribs. 

The loin is the small portion of the back between the back 
proper and the hips. The ramp is that portion between the hips 
and pin bones. 

: The lower part of the body below the ribs and above and in 

front of the udder is often called the barrel. Other parts such 
as the legs, tail, udder, thigh, etc., are too well known to need 
describing. 

The parts of the dairy cow differ from that of the beef cow 
in that they include the following :— 

‘c The brisket is located in front just below the breast. The 
dewlap is also in front near the breast. The shin is just above 
the hoof. 

Crops are above the shoulder and ribs. The hock is the 
lower part of the hind quarter. The shank is below the hock. 


Mouth of the Cow, Method of Feeding 


Since the most important part of a cow’s mouth is the 
teeth, they alone will be considered here. As in the case of 
all. domestic animals, the teeth furnish a fairly accurate means 
of judging the age of a. cow. 

The calf often has a pair of central milk teeth at birth. 
There are incisors in the lower jaw only, the upper being pro- 
vided. with a cartilaginous pad. At about eighteen months of 
age, the permanent teeth replace the milk teeth. These are 
about two times as broad as the milk teeth, hence are: readily 
recognized. The second pair appear at twenty-seven months of 
age, the third at thirty-six months, and the fourth at forty-five 


SECOND QUARTER 49 


months. After this age, the wearing of the teeth is depended 
on to denote age. After ten years of age, little change takes 
place. The teeth are adapted to an exclusively herbivorous diet. 


Cud, Apartments and Functions of the Stomach of the Cow 


Like a cow’s teeth, her stomach is adapted to a strictly 
herbivorous diet. It is divided into two portions, each sub- 
divided. The first is known as the rumen or paunch, and receives 
the food as it is eaten. Then when the cow is quiet it is regur- 
gitated into the mouth, and chewed by the molars, hence 
“chewing the cud.” Then it passes the second time into the 
second division, the honeycomb or reticulum, thence to the 
manyplies, or omasum, and lastly to the abomasum or true 
stomach. aes 


CATTLE 


~ Cattle—Two Great Classes, Dairy and Beef. Difference in 
Form Between Dairy and Beef Types of Cattle 


Cattle were the first animals domesticated. Some hold that 
our earliest cattle were domesticated from wild cattle that 
roamed over Europe and Asia at early times. Others hold that 
cattle originated in Asia, and were later taken to Europe dur- 
ing the great Aryan migration. The ancients secured no great 
degree of development. . That was left for later centuries. 
Within the last two hundred years, great attention has been 
paid to breeding until now there are over three hundred dis- 
tinct breeds of cattle. 

The most valuable breeds have come from Great Britain 
and northwestern Furope. The two main classes of cattle at 
the present time are dairy and beef cattle. The dual purpose 
cattle are those that combine qualities of both beef and dairy 
types. See, 

There are two distinct types of cattle—first, the dairy type, 
and second, the beef type. These types are determined by the 
demands made on the animals. In the dairy type, the udder, is 
the most important organ, but in the beef type, it is important 
only to rear the young calf. In the beef fype, it is necessary 
that the body be plump and full, and that the animal take on 
flesh and fat readily. In the dairy type, this quality is a real 
detriment. Since the dairy tvpe is kept for the milk, it will 
‘ secrete, and since its food should go to produce milk and not 
meat and fat, the body will be thin. Since the secretion of 
milk takes place in the udder, the rear development of the dairy 
type will be large, and since the milk production depends largely 


/ 
/ 


/ 


50 SECOND QUARTER 


upon the digestive tract, and therefore a large milk yield calls 
for a large digestive tract, this will add to the rear development. 
Fleshiness is always objectionable in the dairy type, and 


“while the general outline may vary, the following is typical. 


In general appearance, a dairy cow resembles a triple wedge. 
A side view shows greater width of body behind than in front. 
From the rear and top, she gradually widens from the chest to 
the hips. From the front and top, she gradually widens from 
the withers backward, and down to the abdomen. 


DAIRY BREEDS 


Different Breeds of Dairy Cows Characteristics of Each. 


There are four major breeds of dairy cattle in the United 
States. They are: Jerseys, Holstein-Friesian, Guernseys, and 
Ayrshires. All four types have horns. 

The Jerseys are the smallest, averaging from 800 to 1,200 
pounds. They are usually fawn-like in color, though this varies 
from yellow, red, to grey, brown, or Silver fawn. It is low 
and muscular in form. The head, short, lean, and small. The 
horns are often crumpled, are small, often waxy and black tipped. 
The ears are small, well formed, and yellow colored on the in- 
side. The body is round and large, the neck short; the tail, long 
and fine. 

The Holstein-Friesians are the largest of the dairy cattle, 
averaging 1400-2000 pounds.. They came from Holland, and 
are black and white in color, white predominating. The head 
is lean and long, with straight nose. The horns should be short 
and curve inward. A white horn with a black tip is usually 
a mark of: the pure breed. The neck of the female is long and 
slender, but in the male large and arched. The hips are large 
with thin thighs. 

The Guernseys weigh from 1000-1500 pounds and are a 
vellow fawn. They probably have the same French ancestors 
as the Jerseys. It sometimes has white on the legs and under 
the body. It has a. medium-sized head, with a buff colored . 
muzzle. The horns range from white to amber or deep yellow. 
They are medium in length, and curve inward and upward very 
gracefully. The neck is fine shaped and short, but the shoulders 
are angular. 

The Ayrshire breed is of Scotch origin and weighs 1000- 
t400 pounds. It is medium in size and borders on the beef 
type. Red, white, and brown predominte in colors. Often red 
and white are found, with the white predominating. The 
head is of medium size, with a straight face. The horns are 


SECOND QUARTER 51 


long, white, and often have black tips. They curve outward 
and upward, and often turn back at the ends. The animal has 
a perfectly straight back from base of horns to the tail. 

: The Dutch Belted cow from Holland, the Brown Swiss 
from Switzerland, the French Canadian from Canada, and the 
Kerry from Ireland are minor breeds of dairy cattle which will 
not be discussed here since they are little known in most parts 
of the State. 


Care, Shelter, Food, Good Dairy Rations 


Perhaps no other part of a farmer’s work calls for the 
care that his milk cows require. To produce clean, wholesome 
-milk, requires care and work. The cows must be curried daily 
to remove dirt and loose hairs. The udder and rear parts 
should be clipped to remove the long hairs that catch and hold 
the dirt. The udders should be wiped with a clean, damp cloth 
_ before milking. Care must be taken that cows are fed clean, 
nutritious foods, and none that will contaminate the milk in 
taste. Plenty of clean, fresh drinking water that is free of all 
contamination should be provided. 

One cannot produce clean milk in unsanitary surroundings, 
hence the stables must be kept clean. The stables should be 
free of dust and cobwebs, as well as manure and litter. Plenty 
of light and good ventilation are of utmost importance. The 
floors should be of cement, and the. stalls cleaned twice each 
day. The stable yard should be clean and well drained. Plenty 
of bedding should be provided, and should be changed fre- 
quently. Old straw is perhaps the best bedding, but shavings, 
leaves, and similar substitutes may be used. 

There are many factors that enter into the consideration 
of food for dairy cattle. Perhaps the chief of these are: age 
of animal, weight, milk given, and the general characteristics 
of the animal itself. 

Armsby’s standard gives a cow 1.25 pounds of digestible 
protein for each 15 pounds of milk; 1.5 for each 20 pounds, 
and 1.75 pounds for each 25 pounds of milk. 

The Wolff-Lehman standard requires for a cow weighing 
1,000 pounds, and giving 11 pounds daily of milk, 25 pounds 
of dry matter, 1.6 protein, 10 carbohydrates, and .3 fat. If the 
cow gives 22 pounds of milk daily, the rations should be 29 of 
dry matter, 2.5 protein, 13 of carbohydrates, and .5 fats. 

’ In considering the feeding of dairy cattle, we must con- 
sider it from the point of winter and summer feeding. In the 
early pasture season, the cows usually need no additional food 
besides what they get from the pastures, but later in the season 
when the pastures get short, it is often necessary to feed silage, 


52 SECOND QUARTER 


grain, or to cut forage, and feed it to the cattle green. In the 
case of heavy milkers, even when the pastures are good, it is 
well to give a mixture of wheat, bran, and oats. 

Soiling or the cutting of green crops and feeding them 
fresh is a most economical way of feeding cows, but requires 
much extra work. Beginning May 15 and continuing to Octo- 
ber 15, the following would prove a good soiling system: 

Rye—May 15-31. 

Alfalfa or wheat—June 1-10. 

Red clover—June 11-20. 

Clover and timothy—June 21—July 1. 

Oats and vetch—July 1-5. 

Oats and peas—July 6-10. 

Corn, or second cutting alfalfa—July 11-31. 

Corn, or second cutting clover and grasses—August 1-31. 

Corn or third cutting alfalfa—September 1-30. 

Rape—October 1-15. 

Winter feeding is the most expensive, and upon the cost’ 
of the cow’s winter food depends the dairyman’s profit or loss. 
The food should average 7 to 10 younds of grain per day, 15 
to 20 pounds of dry forage, or 30 to 40 pounds of succulent 
food with 5 to 10 pounds of hay. Mill refuse, together with 
rye, corn, oats, barley, and wheat, are the chief cereals fed 
cows. These are determitied by price of foods, yield of cows in 
milk, and dry foods fed with them. | 

Clover, alfalfa, mixed hays, and corn stalks are the usual 
dry forage. Feed all the hay the animal will eat with relish. 

Silage, tubers, and roots are the chief succulent foods. 
Thirty to forty pounds of succulence is the average amount 
fed. Silage is the preferable feed of the succulent group. 

Corn is the chief crop used for silage, and is second only 
to grass in stimulating milk production. Mangels are the most 
important root crop as a succulent feed. They are easily 
digested, palatable, and stimulate the milk flow. 


Method of Improving the Herd 


- Constant vigilance is the price of a good herd of dairy cows. 
In the first place, one must start with good stock—the nearer pure 
the breed is the better. 

Inbreeding should not be resorted to. The male should be 
selected with as great care as the female. 

The herd should be watched carefully and scrubs or non- 
paying stock eliminated. A cow who does not give the standard 
of milk and butter fat will consume quite as much feed and 
require as much care as a record breaker. 


SECOND QUARTER 53 


Once one is sure of the breed, he must look to the care of 
his herd. Clean light airy weather proof barns are necessary. 
Plenty of good pure drinking water, a balanced ration, and 
human treatment are also essential. Care of the young is im- 
portant. Regularity of feeding and milking are other essential 
points. 


MILK 


Composition of Milk 


We are too apt to think of milk as a beverage rather than as 
one of our most satisfying of foods. But careful analysis shows 
that it is very rich in proteids, fats, sugars, and mineral matters. 
The mineral matter constitute about seven-tenths of 1 per cent 
of the entire weight of milk, more than in any other common 
food. Fats constitute about 4 per cent of the weights, proteids 
about 3.3 per cent. Proteids are found in buttermilk as the 
casein. Milk contains about 5 per cent of sugar, but this is milk 
sugar, and much different from the sugar used in ordinary cook- 
ing. Albumen is another important constituent of milk, but in 
a much smaller percentage than the casein. It resembles the 
albumen in egg white. Unlike the casein, it does not curdle when 
milk sours, but remains in solution in the whey. The proteid 
is found in much greater quantities in human milk than in cow’s 


milk, 


Different Practices in Handling Milk, Cream Separator 


There are almost as many different ways of handling milk 
as there are people who handle it. However, they all resolve 
around the three main ones in use at present. Each has as its 
object the removal of the cream—the lighter part of the milk— 
from the milk proper. The shallow pan method was the one 
used mainly a generation ago, but since fifteen to twenty per 
cent of the cream was lost in this way, it has largely been given 
over for other methods. This method was to place milk in pans 
from three to four inches in depth, then put in a cool place. In 
twelve to twenty-four hours, the cream came to the top, and was 
then skimmed off. The next advancement made in the handling 
of milk came when the deep pan came in use. Cans twenty to 
twenty-two inches in height are used. The cans are filled with 
the milk, cooled to 40° and allowed to stand twenty-four hours 
before skimming. However, this method is also wasteful, since 
by it five to fifteen per cent, or even more, of the cream is lost. 
The most modern and economical method of obtaining the cream 
from the milk, is by a first-class separator. Separators of some 
type are familiar to most farm children. Perhaps it might be 


54 SECOND QUARTER 


well here to mention the inventor of the first really successful 
cream separator. He was Dr. Gustav De Laval, a native of 
Sweden, who died in 1913. His invention was made in 1879 and 
has almost entirely revolutionized the dairy business, not only in 
Europe but also in America. Not only has the separator saved 
more of the cream for the dairy man, but it makes it possible to 
feed the warm milk back to pigs, calves, and chickens. At this 
stage, it is sweet and warm, and contains all its sugar, much of 
which is changed to lactic acid, once fermentation has begun. 
Digestive disorders seldom occur in pigs or calves fed with this 
fresh, warm milk. 


Care of Milk—Essentials in Clean Milk Production 


In the care of milk there are four things extremely necessary, 
if one wishes to have sweet, wholesome milk or other dairy pro- 
ducts.» Thesetare: ‘Clean vessels, protection from air and dust, 
proper temperature, and protection from flies. Milk very readily 
absorbs odor or bacteria when exposed to the air, or placed in 
dirty vessels. The bacteria may be the harmless sort which are 
found everywhere, or they may be those of contagious diseases 
or those which cause digestive trouble that prove so fatal to 
babies. Bacteria multiply rapidly while the milk remains warm— 
that is, 50° F. or above. Cleanliness and a low temperature are 
extremely necessary if one would have good milk. No milk 
should ever be bought anywhere that is sold from the open can 
or other container. Practically all the milk sold now is bottled 
mill that the law compels the seller to pasteurize. 

When the milk has been delivered, the bottle should be care- 
fully wiped off and put in a refrigerator at once. The milk 
should be emptied. from the bottle only as used, and under no 
circumstances should milk once poured from the bottle, be poured 
back in the bottle, if there remains any milk in the bottle. To do 
so may cause the whole to sour. The paper cap should always be 
used to cover the bottle. 

There seems to be little need to urge on thinking people the 
necessity of protecting milk from flies when we know that on 
the average, each fly carries at all times about 1,250,000 bacteria, 
many of them bacteria of tuberculosis, typhoid, and cholera 
infantum. 

But our care of milk should not end with the bottle itself, 
but should extend to the refrigerator or cellar where milk is kept. 
Daily and constant care is needed to keep these sweet and clean at 
all times, yet if one but thinks that on these depend the health of 
all who use the milk, little urging will be needed. 

The essentials of clean milk production have been touched 
upon in a previous topic, but an additional word here may be 


SECOND QUARTER 55 


wise. Constant vigilance is the price of clean milk, and this 
vigilance begins first with the cow. No cow should be milked 
which is not sound physically. Next her feed and drinking water 
must be good, fresh, and abundant. Her stable or stall should be 
clean, airy and well ventilated. The cow herself should receive 
daily care, while the milker’s hands and clothing must be clean. 
Duck cloth that is washable makes ideal milkers’ outfits. The 
buckets should be clean, and with small opening at the top. As 
soon as the milking i is finished, they should be covered with clean 
cloths. 

All utensils used for milk should first be rinsed, washed, and 
scalded every time they are used. Do not wash them in the dish 
water. Nor is it necessary to dry them—scald and drain, prefer- 
ably in the sun. Dairymen are fast coming to the point where 
they no longer grumble at the time such precautions are lacy 
They believe in “Safety First.” 

Bacteria; Sterilization, Pasteurization 

Many of us have never seen bacteria because they are so 
tiny that they are visible only with a high powered microscope. 
Yet we have all seen how they act. We may have a cup of 
milk which is perfectly sweet tonight, but if we leave it setting 
in a warm kitchen all night, it will perhaps be clabber in the 
morning. This is the work of bacteria. 

Let us take a sample of milk and see how rapidly bacteria 
multiply. Suppose the sample contains but 13,000 bacteria per 
cubic centimeter. This is very low, and milk with such a low 
count must have been produced under very clean conditions. In 
36 hours, if we do not pasteurize it, the count will have increased 
to the enormous total of 52,500,000. This shows the need of 
sterilizing all milk vessels, and then pasteurizing the milk. 

There are three chief ways of pasteurizing milk. First, the 
Flash System, which consists of heating the milk to a temper- 
ature of 166° F., held there for a few seconds and rapidly cooled 
to 40° This changed the taste somewhat and is little used now. 
Second, the Held System heats the milk to a temperature of 145° 
holds it there for 25 minutes, then rapidly cools it to 40°. The 
third or Bottle System consists of heating the milk in bottles to 
145°, then cooling. It is little used now. 

By sterilization we mean the scalding of all tensile cloths, 
brushes, separators, or other articles used in handling milk. Im- 
mersion in boiling water or steam is the usual means of sterilizing 
an article. 


Butter, Test Milk for Butter Fat; Value of Butter 


Without hesitancy, one may say butter is the chief milk pro- 
duct. In composition this is about 85 per cent fat, 11 per cent 


56 SECOND QUARTER 


water, 4 per cent salt, and 1 per cent casein. Color, flavor, tex- 
ture, and general appearance are considered in grading butter. 
In color it should be a bright, golden yellow. The flavor is im- 
possible to describe. 

It is said that the Arabs centuries ago first discovered the 
art of butter making, when butter was formed when milk was 
carried in a goat’s skin on a camel’s back. From this primitive 
churn, the art has been perfected up to the dasher churn of our 
grandmother’s day, to the box and barrel churn now in use. A 
detailed discussion of butter making is not possible here. 

Two things determine whether or not a cow is profitable— 
the quality and quantity of her milk. The quantity is more easily 
tested—and is done simply by weighing the milk each day, but 
testing for quality is slightly more complicated, but plays such 
an important part in dairying that no dairyman can afford to 
neglect it. This may be done by a Babcock tester, a device which 
separates the fats from the other solids, and weighs them. 

This Babcock tester may be purchased from any dairy supply 
company for about $5 or may be ordered through a hardware 
dealer. By its use a farmer can soon ascertain which of his 
cows are paying, and which are not. It one wishes to grade up 
his herd by breeding, this is one of the best ways to select his 
cows for breeding purposes. 

Many country homes now have some means of testing milk. 
These should be discussed in class, and examples brought to 
school if practicable. 


Value of Butter 


Butter as we all know, is made of sour cream, which is 
churned at a temperature of 50° to 54° in summer and 54° to 
58° in winter. Butter generally contains besides its fat, 1% 
protein and 18% salt, curd, and water. 


CHEESE 


Cheese is perhaps the next most important milk product, and 
is made by coagulating milk with the ferment from the calf's 
stomach. Milk rich in fat makes more and better cheese than 
thin, blue milk. 

Cream cheese should contain 37 per cent water, 34 per cent 
fat, 24 per cent casein, and 5 per cent ash. Cheese is one of our 
most economical foods since 95 per cent of it is digested when 
eaten. 

Cottage. cheese is one of our best known cheese since it is 
made at home. Cheddar is one of the best known makes of this 
country. Until the war, most of our fine cheese was imported 
from Holland and eye teerland or France, but cheese making 


SECOND QUARTER 57 


now is making great strides in this country, and once trade is 
resumed on a pre-war basis, it is hoped the European markets 
will find we have products that will rival their best. 

Some of the best known of the imported cheese are: 

Limberger, given its peculiar odor by specific fermentation 
during ripening. 

Swiss cheese, which is flavored with herbs and by certain 
native pastures when the cows feed. It is world-widely known. 

The French Roquefort cheese is made both from goats’ and 
cows’ milk. It is made by mixing moistened bread with clotted 
milk. It is dried, salted, and then placed in mountain caves to 
ripen. 

Cheddar, Cheshire, and Stilton are the most famous English 
cheese. 

The round Dutch cheese, colored red, and called Edam, from 
a town of that name in Holland, comes from Holland, and is 
made of partly skimmed milk. 

- Brie and Camembert are soft French cheese of fine flavor. 


BEEF CATTLE Poe. 
Characteristics of Beef Type, Compare with Dairy Type of 
Cattle 


Beef cattle may be divided into two_general classes—first, 
strictly beef cattle, and second, dual purpose breeds. The former 
are valuable mainly for the production of meat, and have been 
bred and developed so that they will produce a maximum amount 
of beef of superior quality. 

The dual purpose type are intended to produce a fair amount 
of good meat, while the cows are expected to give a good flow 
of milk. The breeds of beef cattle in the United States are: 

Shorthorn, sometimes called Durham, Polled Durham, 
Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, and Galloway. With the exception 
of the Shorthorn, these cows are not heavy milkers. The milking 
tendency accompanies that shape of body which prevents the 
animal from yielding the greatest amount and the highest quality 
of beef. A good beef-bred cow should give only enough milk to 
nourish a good healthy calf. 

Among the dual purpose breeds we find certain types of the 
Shorthorn, together with the Red Polls and Devons. 

In the beef type, since it is desirable that the animal fatten 
readily, the food should go to produce flesh. The quality of the 
flesh in various parts of the body varies greatly, hence it is desir- 
able that beef cattle take on flesh in those parts yielding the valu- 
able cuts of meat. Take, for instance, the lower leg, usually sold 


= 


58 SECOND QUARTER 


as soup meat. This cut will sell for one-half to two-thirds less 
than the porterhouse taken from the back. 

In general, the beef type resembles a brick set on edge. It 
offers parallel lines whether viewed from side, top, or bottom. 
Th animal is as deep in front as behind. The animal is stocky 
and compact, almost straight of line from ears to tail. The 
back is broad from shoulders to hips. “Blocky” is a term often 
applied to the ideal beef type, and well describes the compact, 
squareness of form. 

But the dariy type is much different. Viewed from the three 
angles, she presents a wedge shape. She is angular rather than 
compact, while her rear development is much greater than her 
front. 


Beef Breeds, Characteristics; Uses 


The Shorthorns are natives of England, have horns, and 
weigh 1400-2000 pounds. In color they are red, white, and roan. 
It is the largest breed of beef cattle, and closely approaches the 
ideal beef type. The head is short, and between the eyes, is 
broad. The horns which are small and short usually curve for- 
ward. The neck is short and thick, the back broad and straight. 
The rump is long, broad, and level. The thighs and quarters are 
deep, long, and thick, the flesh being well toward the hocks. The 
short legs have small, clean bones, and strong joints. They have 
a very good disposition. 

The Hereford, like the Shorthorn, is also hornless and orig- 
inated in England. It weighs 1400-2000 pounds, and is red and 
white in color. It takes its name from Hereford County, England, 
where it originated. It is one of the oldest breeds of cattle in 
England. 

The head is short, with a broad, slightly dished face. The 
horns are white or yellowish, which spring forward and up in 
the cows, but down in the bulls, with a graceful curve. The 
neck is short and smooth. The chest is broad with often an 
over-developed dewlap. The back is straight with long, wide, 
well-sprung ribs. The rump, however, is less well developed than 
in the Shorthorn, while the thighs are thin, lacking thickness and 
depth. They are also not so gentle in disposition as the Short- 
horns. However, their three main points of excellence are: 

La ey take on fat at an early age. | 

2. They are unexcelled as baby beef producers. — 

3. They do well on open range grazing. 

The Aberdeen Angus cattle are hornless and are natives of 
Scotland. They range from 1400-1800 pounds, and are black in 
color. The head of the Aberdeen-Angus is short, with prominent 
forehead, which tapers at the poll. The ribs are well sprung but 


SECOND QUARTER 59 


rounded, which does not give the broad back found in the Short- 
horns. The rump slopes a good deal, while the thighs are thin. 
While in some points the Aberdeen-Angus is inferior to the 
Shorthorn, its owners insist its meat is superior in flavor to that 
of the Shorthorn. 

The Galloway are the smallest of the beef breeds, ranging 
from 1200-1800 pounds. In color they are black, and, like the 
Aberdeen-Angus, are natives of Scotland and hornless. It is a 
very old breed and its origin is obscure. Its long, shaggy coat 
of hair fits it to thrive in cold climates. It has a well-shaped 
head, but less peaked at the poll than the Aberdeen-Angus. Its 
back is straight from poll to tail head, but its ribs are deficient 
in spring. Some hold that the Galloway do not mature as early 
as the other types of beef cattle, but they produce a very high 
grade of meat, fine in grain and flavor. The Galloway is of a 
very active temperament. It is the hardiest of all beef cattle, 
while its hide is very valuable because of its long, silky hair. 
It is used to make robes, coats, and such articles. 


Dual Purpose Cattle 


The use of the beef breed is for meat purposes alone, 
while the dual purpose type may serve either the purpose of 
dairy or beef cattle. The dual purpose type is often preferred 
by the farmer for this reason, especially if he keeps but a few 
head at any one time. 

Among the dual purpose cattle are the Polled Durham 
cattle, natives of Englead. and hornless. They average 1400- 
2000 pounds -in weight, and are red, white, or roan in color. 
They are very similar to the Shorthorns and are often called 
the hornless Shorthorns. 

The Devon cattle are natives of England, have horns, are 
red in color, and weigh 1200-1800 pounds. It has graceful, 
upturned, black-tipped, waxy horns, and is very symmetrical 
in general appearance. It has often been called deer-like, owing 
to its natural refinement, and nervous disposition. The oxen 
of this breed ranks high. 

The Red Polled come also from England, and are hornless. 
They are red in color and average 1200-1800 pounds in weight. 
It is often given first rank among the dual purpose breeds. It 
lacks in massiveness, and shows many dairy-breed features. 

Sussex cattle are natives of England, have horns, weigh 
1200-1800 pounds, and are red in color. This breed resembles 
the Devon except its general appearance is coarser, has greater 
size, and is beefier. 

The West Highland breed is of Scottish origin. It has 
horns, is red or black in color, and is the smallest of its class, 


60 SECOND QUARTER 


weighing 900 to 1200 pounds. It is especially noticeable because 
of its shaggy coat of hair and small size. It also matures late, 
fattens slowly, and is very nervous in disposition. It is hardy | 
and rugged and very attractive in appearance. The quality 
of its meat is unexcelled. : 


Care of Beef Cattle 


One of the greatest needs in the successful raising of beef 
cattle is regularity in watering and feeding. Another impor- 
tant point is the securing of good stock to pegin with. It is. 
usually too expensive to make any great purchase of pure-bred 
stock to begin with. It is far better to “grade up” on native 
steck. The cattle feeder should never be tempted to fatten 

cifekscalves from good cows for beef. They should be kept for 
breeding purposes. 

Good pasture 1s one of the most essential features of 
summer feeding. A feed bunk proves of great help in feeding 
grain. This is three feet wide, fifteen feet long, and two and 
one-half feet high. This will accommodate twelve to twenty 
cattle. Many cattle men make use of the self-feeder, where it 
is necessary to economize on labor. Others do not like them. - 
Shade, either natural or artificial, must be provided during the 
hot season, when the excessive heat and flies do much to excite 
a herd of feeders, so that they may stampede and injure one 
another. One of the important factors in feeding cattle is an 
abundant supply of fresh, pure water at all times. A mud hole 
is no place to allow cattle to drink. The hotter and dryer the 
weather, the more water cattle need, and the scarcer it is apt 
to be, especially if one has to depend on hand pumping to sup- 
ply it. Salt should be placed under a shed or other protection, 
where the cattle have free access to it. 

Winter feeding is no less important, and much more expen- 
sive than summer feeding. One of the greatest winter essentials 
is proper shelter. The fattening steer does not require the 
warm quarters required by the dairy cow, but it does require 
dry quarters, and a dry, comfortable bed. The feed lot should 
have a good drainage and some natural protection. For the 
location of the feed lot, a south slope is best. A muddy feed 
lot is hard both on man and beast. In many sections of the 
corn belt the soil is of such a nature that a paved feed lot is 
the only logical solution of the matter. This should have a 
grade of at least one inch to each six feet. When the natural 
drainage is good and the character of the soil such that entire 
paving of the lot is not necessary, to pave it around the water 
tank, forage racks, and feed bunks may prove sufficient. It is 


“ 


SECOND QUARTER 61 


never wise to combine dry forage racks and feed bunks. Each 
should be separate. Such feeding places should be built in 
sheltered positions but not necessarily under sheds. 


Food and Balanced Rations of Beef Cattle 


Since cattle feeders have found out that young animals 
fatten more readily than old ones, the experienced feeder 
chooses his cattle accordingly. To make even a fair profit the 
cattle feeder must have animals that will make rapid and eco- 
nomical gains in tle feed lot. A rapid and economic feeder 
will not possess much flesh at the beginning of the feeding 
period. | 

The quantity of food required for feeding depends on the 
- age, weight, condition, and individuality of the animal, as well 
as upon the kind of food. For this reason, it is impossible to 
give any arbitrary rule for feeding, but this may be taken as 
a working basis. 

For an animal 2-3 month old, weighing 160 pounds, 23 
pounds of dry matter, 4.2 protein, 13 of carbohydrates, and 2 
of fat are required. 

3-6 months, weight 330 pounds, 24 pounds of dry matter, 
3.5 of protein, 12.8 carbohydrates and 1.5 of fat. 

6-12 months, weight 550, requires 25 pounds dry matter, 
2.5 protein, 13.2 carbohydrates, and .7 fat. 

12-18 months, 750 pounds in weight, requires 24 pounds 
dry matter, 12.5 carbohydrates, :5 fat. 

18-24 months, weight 950 pounds, 24 pounds dry matter, 
1.8 protein, 12 carbohydrates, and 4 fat. 

During the first period of fattening cattle, 30 pounds of 
dry matter are required, 2.5 of protein, 15 of carbohydrates, 
and .5 fat. 

During the second period 30 pounds of dry matter, 3 of 
protein, 14.5 of carbohydrates, and .7 of fat are required. 

During the third period, 26 pounds of dry matter, 2.7 pro- 
tein, 15 of carbohydrates, and .7 fat are required. 

Some stock men purchase large numbers of cattle in the 
fall in order to feed up such roughage as corn stalks, straw, 
inferior clover hay, seeded clover, and such. This is an eco- 
nomical way of disposing of such crops, and cattle so fed in 
the winter fatten readily when turned on pasture in the spring. 
This roughage increases their feeding capacity, and cattle so 
fed during the winter show much more rapid summer gains 
than those fed a heavy grain feed during the winter. However 
if this method is used, the latter part of the feeding period 
must be used to reduce the paunch and round up the steer. 


62 SECOND QUARTER 


Summer feeding on pasture has many advantages over 
winter feeding, in that no bulky foods are to be handled, no 
bedding to provide, no lots to clean, and many other tasks 
requiring time and labor are eliminated. There are two methods 
of summer feeding—pasturing with no grain and pasturing 
with all the grain they will eat. Which method one uses will 
depend upon the amount and condition of pasture available, cost 
of grain, and condition of animals. Cattle fattened wholly on 
pasture cannot be brought to the point of perfection that grain 
fattened cattle can be, and hence do not bring as good price 
on the market. For this reason, it is usually more profitable to 
feed some grain along with the pasture. Pg 

Care should be used in turning on grass too suddenly in 
the spring. The first day two hours in the afternoon is 
enough, the next day, they may be turned out at noon, but not 
till the third of fourth day should they be allowed to remain 
out all day. Turning them on succulent grass, especially clover 
or alfalfa wet with dew or rain, is very apt to cause bloating 
in the cattle. 

Many factors enter into the consideration as to how much 
grain to feed cattle while on grass. Jf a thick fat is desired, 
they should be fed throughout the summer. Cattle intended 
for fall market need not be fed until pastures get short— 
usually in July. Others feed from the beginning of the season 
and plan to sell along in mid-summer before the pastures fail. 
Some prefer corn as a feed alone, but for young stock, it is 
perhaps wise to feed something in addition that is rich in pro- 
tein, as linseed or cotton seed meal. 

For the farmer who is short of pasture space, but has an 
abundance of corn and dry forage, winter feeding is usually 
the most profitable. This system has its advantages over sum- 
mer feeding, in that the work can be done when the farmer is 
less rushed with farm work. The cattle are not troubled by 
lack of water and flies. It also forms a way to secure quick 
returns from forage crops as well as grain, since the steers are 
on the market before farm spring work begins. The kind and 
amount of winter feed depends mainly upon the age of the 
animals. Young animals will need a grain feed from the begin- 
ning, but older animals usually fatten if the grain is fed for 
sixty days before marketing. The kind and amount of grain 
depends largely on the dry roughage. 

The following standard tables will give some idea of 
amounts and kind of food required. 


SECOND QUARTER 63 


Study of Standard Tables 


Fattening cattle. Dry Crude — Carbo- 
| | Matter Protein hydrates Fat 
Ist. periddimeety of 235. oe. 30 25 15 
eidepemOamems. hes... oi. 30 3 14.5 of 
StU Pericumeee 2 bc. os ek 26 LEY, 15 of, 


This table follows the Wolff-Lehman Standards, and is 
suggestive rather than arbitrary. External conditions, age of 
cattle, etc., must be taken into consideration also. 


Marketing 


Perhaps no part of the cattle raisers’ work is more impor- 
tant than the marketing of his finished product. This is done 
in one of the following ways—either by slaughtering them him- 
self or ‘“‘on foot,’ or alive. The former is the more profitable 
in some regions, but since all our great cities have stock yards 
with their attendant slaughtering and packing houses the latter 
has become more common. The shipping of live stock has 
reached such a large growth that special cattle cars have been 
built for this purpose, and often whole trains will be composed 
of them alone. The stock yards of East St. Louis and of Chi- 
cago are both well known centers of beef cattle trade in Illinois. 

Note.—Hawve students bring in reports of market quotations, 
lists of commussion firms, and other matters in connection with 
these two markets. Have them also give instances of some local 
man who has topped the market with animals of any sort. Also 
discuss with them charges made by commission men, charge for 
“yardage,” how cattle are graded first into (a) beef cattle, (b) 
butcher stock, (c) cutters and canners, (d) stockers and feeders, 
(e) veal calves. These are subdivided into prime, choice, good, 
medium, common and inferior; also discuss Government inspec- 
tion and quarantine. Tis can be made a most interesting and 
profitable topic, if handled rightly. Encourage pupils to bring 
agriculture papers to school, to read, and discuss them. 


Cuts of Beef 


In studying the cuts of beef, it would be well to have an 
outline sketched on the board and then have the students locate 
the parts. The diagram on following page is merely suggestive. 

Using this diagram it would be well for the teacher to 
show how the beef type of animals have the flesh in the parts 
that furnish the best cuts of beef. Have students compare cost 
of different cuts; 75 per cent of the value of a beef steer is in 
the valuable parts, the rest—25 per cent—being in the less valu- 
_ able cuts. What are included in the former? What in the latter ? 


64 SECOND QUARTER 


Care of Herd and Calves 


The care of cattle has been discussed along with the treat- 
ment of both dairy cattle, and will be given only as a resumé here. 

Beef cattle should be given either natural or artificial protec- 
tion during the heat of summer, also plenty of good, fresh water. 
In winter, they should be protected but need not be housed as 
warmly as dairy cattle. The feed lot should not be allowed to 
degenerate into a mud hole. 

Dairy cows need warmer quarters than beef cattle, and re- 
quire more attention to their surroundings and for themselves in 
order that the milk production may be sanitary. . 

Every farmer has his own ideas about raising calves and no 
one can make statements in regard to their care that some will 
not dispute. Some prefer to have the calf with the cow for 
about ten days, others prefer to separate them the third or fourth 
day, or even the second, if the calf is strong. If hand feeding is 
resorted to there is danger of overfeeding the calf and causing 
serious digestive disturbances. While the calf is still young it is 
best to feed it the milk of its own mother, while it is still warm. 
This should be done three or four times a day, and about one and 
one-half to two quarts each time. At four weeks of age, the 
change to skim milk may be made. This change should be made 
gradually, about one pound each day being skimmed. In this 


SECOND QUARTER 65 


way, the change is made without the calf’s noticing it. After two 
or three weeks of age, the calf should be taught to eat a little 
grain. This is done easiest by putting a little in the pail after the 
calf has finished drinking. At six weeks old, the calf should have 
daily one pound of the following mixture: Corn meal, three 
parts; three parts ground oats, three parts wheat bran, and one 
part linseed meal. If it is desired that the calf have no horns, 
as soon as the young horn can be felt with the-hand, slip away 
‘the hair, wrap a stick of caustic potash in paper so as to protect 
one’s hand, dip the end of the stick in water and rub this upon the 
growing tip of the horn until the skin begins to loosen up and 
turns red. Care should be used not to touch the surrounding 
skin. In a few days the place heals over, and no other application 
is necessary. 

Note—Teacher should have students report in class on calves 
they have raised, bred, treatment given them, results and final 


disposal. 


Methods of Improving the Herd. 


The ways of improving the herd of beef cattle are much the 
same as those employed to improve a herd of milk type. Above 
all a good breed must be selected. Scrub stock never pay for 
feed or time spent on them. Certain characteristics should be 
selected as especially desirable, and animals bred with a view of 
securing this characteristic. Feeding is especially important in 
keeping beef cattle in good condition. Care should be given to 
secure a balanced ration. Green food while of value is not so 
important as in the feeding of dairy cattle. 

Fresh water is a prime requisite as is a clean barn and suffi- 
cient shelter from the weather. 

The feeding, breeding, and care of beef cattle are no longer 
the hit and miss affair it was years ago when cattle were allowed 
to range over the prairies, were rounded up, corn fed for a few 
weeks, and marketed. It has been reduced to a science as exact 
as any that the farmer deals with. Rightly managed, breeding 
and feeding beef cattle is extremely profitable, but it is a subject 
so vast in scope it cannot be dealt with here adequately. 


Projects 


1. Collect good pictures of different breeds of cattle and 
mount, group into dairy and beef breeds. 

2. Plan to raise a calf; keep a record of expenses; receipts; 
profits. 


66 SECOND QUARTER 


Horses 


The horse is one of the oldest known animals, yet its use 
as a work animal is of comparatively recent origin. During 
Biblical times, the horse was used merely as a means of locomo- 
tion, and the oxen as the beast of burden. This is true in some 
respects in Europe at the present time, and especially true in Asia. 
Within the last generation, oxen were used in the United States 
in farm work, and that their use has been discontinued is due to 
two factors—the American demand for speed, and the increasing © 
use of cattle for meat purposes. 

The origin of the horse is really unknown, having been 
known to civilization from early times. The wild horse of Europe 
is undoubtedly the original source, but centuries of breeding have 
developed many types much unlike the original animal. The 
beautiful horses of Arabia are famous the world over, but their 
owners have always proved most secretive as to their breeding 
and ancestry. 


The Horse as a Mammalia; Characteristics; Types of Horses 


Like the cow, the horse is a mammalia, or milk-fed animal 
when young. It is also an ungulatis, or hoof animal, but is a 
perissodactyla, that is, the hoof is developed on the middle toe, 
instead of being an artiodactyle, like the cow, that has a hoof 

_ developed on the two middle toes. : 
S There are two distinct types of horses—the light and heavy. 
he former is used in light, swift work, while the latter or draft 
horses are the real beasts of burden. : 

It has many characteristics which mark it off from animals 
in general. Perhaps the first of these is,its higher degree of 
intelligence. A good horse seems almost to show human intelli- 
gence. It is also capable of being trained to a degree unattained 
by sheep, cows, or any other animal except the dog. Breeds of 
horses differ so much in characteristics that it is difficult to make 
any statement that will hold good for all. Hence, the personal 
characteristics of each breed will be discussed under the separate 
heads or breeds. | 

As was said before, there are two types of horses—the light 
and heavy. The light type is further divided into running, 
trotting, pacing, saddling, coaching, and various other types. 
While all light types have some points of similarity, the vairous 
types have sharply distinguishing features.. The light type is 
usually tall with long limbs. The animals are narrow, but deep 
in front. It has been welt compared in body formation to the 
greyhound. 

In a general way, the draft type resembles the beef cattle. 
It is massive, rather blocky in shape, limbs short, and resembles 


SECOND QUARTER 67 


the bull dog in shape. Weight is the one main feature of the 
draft horse. At maturity a good draft horse should weigh 1500 
to 2400 pounds, according to his class. 


Different Breeds of Horses in Neighborhood 


Since this work is to be used in various sections of the State, 
~ a general survey of the more common breeds will be given. 

The horse is very susceptible to climatic conditions and 
quickly shows it in change in general appearance. In the tem- 
perate regions, where we find fertile, grassy plains, we find horses 
noted for size and strength. For this reason, it is the plains of 
France and Germany that have produced our heavy draft breeds. 
These regions are the source of these horses. But these animals 
have lacked quality and activity so essential in the first-class draft 
animal, so by breeding with light horses, these points have been 
improved. Each of the draft breeds has been founded on the 
light horse. 

The light breeds in turn have been improved by inter-breed- 
ing with Arabian horses. 

The Thoroughbred horse is one of the most popular with 
English sportsmen, and is really the source, together with the 
Arabian horse, of all the light breeds of quality. It is a native of 
England. It stands 14 to 14% hands high, weighs 800-1000 
pounds. In color it is bay or brown and is used mainly for racing. 
The history of the Thoroughbred is obscure. Its origin was 
probably the original stock of the country, bred up by Roman 
horses brought over in the days of Cesar. German horses were 
also used in breeding up the stock, and Spanish horses were later 
introduced. Charles II. of England was the first to bring into the 
country the Royal mares from Arabia, and other parts of the 
Orient. The late part of the Seventeenth and the early Eighteenth 
Century saw the greatest advancements in this breed. 

The Thoroughbred has a fine, lean head of moderate size. 
The eyes are prominent and intelligent, while the medium sized 
ears are carried well up. The neck is long and fine and joins 
shoulders sloping obliquely back. The chest is narrow but deep, 
and the body cylindrical. The croup is long and level, and the 
tail carried gracefully. The distinguishing feature of the breed 
is the hindquarters, which are long with strong muscles, of great 
driving power. The knee and hock joints are medium in size and 
strong, while the legs above are strong, with distinct muscles. 
The feet are of medium size, are wide, and high at the heel. The 
action is one of the most important features, and should be 
straight, free, and easy. Because of generations of breeding for 
races over long, straight tracks, the Thoroughbred has developed 
great endurance at high speed. 


68 SECOND QUARTER 


The Arabian horse, as its name implies, is a native of 
Arabia, is 14 to 14% hands high, is bay or white, and is used 
mainly for riding. It weighs 800-1000 pounds. Little is known 
of the early history of these horses. Some say the great endur- 
ance of these horses is due to the difficulty they found in securing 
pasturage, so that all but the most hardy died. Others say there 
is a peculiarity of the scanty Arabian horses which goes to pro- 
duce fine, firm bone. However that may be, the finest horses of 
this type in the world are found among the migratory Bedouin 
tribes of Arabia. Compared to the Thoroughbred, the Arabian 
is more stylish and less angular. The Arabian horse has a shorter 
body, with longer ribs, and more curved, thus giving the body a 
straighter underline. The legs are shorter. He has great endur- 
ance and stamina, and has a more stylish carriage of head, neck 
and tail than the Thoroughbred, but is not nearly the equal of 
the latter in speed. 

The American Saddler is a native of the United States, is 
15-1% to 15-2% hands high. It is bay, black or brown, is used 
for either riding or driving, and weighs 950 to 1050 pounds. This 
horse was really the product of necessity, for in the early days 
of our country, before we had railroads, the horse was the sole 
means of transportation. Thus the use ‘of the saddle horse be- 
came very common and in our southern States, especially 
Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, much attention was 
given to breeding this type of horse. Because of the fact that 
Kentucky made so many improvements in this breed, it is often 
spoken of as the Kentucky saddle horse. The Thoroughbred 
was used largely in breeding up this animal, and most of the noted 
saddlers today are descendants from Denmark, a noted Thorough- 
bred. Compared to the Thoroughbred, it is taller and heavier. 
It has greater symmetry of form, and greater style in carriage of 
head, neck, and tail. It has a very easy gait, which is very dis- 
tinctive. They are divided into two classes, according to their 
gaits—the walk-trot-canter horse, and the gaited: saddle horse, 
which walks, trots, canters, racks, and does one or more of the 
three slow gaits, the running walk, ‘the fox trot, or slow pace. The 
former is the most usual saddle horse. 

The Standard Bred is also a native of the United States. 
It is 15%4 to 1534 hands high, weighs 900-1150 pounds, is used 
for driving or racing, and is bay, brown, or black in color. This 
breed is a road type and includes both pacers and trotters—in- - 
deed, the same horse may pace one time and trot the next. It is of 
American origin, but has been graded up by trotting horses im- — 
ported from England. The English Thoroughbred played a great 
part in its improvement. A Thoroughbred, Messenger, imported 
in 1788, and Bellfounder, imported in 1822, did much to improve 


SECOND QUARTER 69 


this breed. Hambletonian, a descendant of Messenger and a 
Standardbred horse, was perhaps one of the most noted horses 
ever born in America. The Standardbred is America’s principal 
race horse, and speed at the trot is the main requirement. In 
shape this breed is rather angular with prominent, strong joints. 
The ribs are more or less noticeable. It has a straighter underline 
than the Thoroughbred, mainly because of its longer ribs. Power- 
ful trotting or pacing action is essential. It must be true, and 
vary neither to right or left. 

The famous Dan Patch was one of the most famous of this 
breed. In 1903 at Memphis race tracks he made % mile in 56 
seconds. The same year at Macon, Ga., he made 2 miles in 4.17 
minutes, while in 1905 at Memphis he made 1 mile in 1.55% 
minutes. In 1874 Lady St. Clair of this breed made 5 miles in 
12.5434 minutes in San Francisco. 

The Coach Breed of horses is really a cross between the light 
and draft horses; yet since it tends more to the former than to 
the latter, it usually is classed under that head. They are dis- 
tinguished for stylish action, yet useful for heavy coach or 
carriage work. They owe their origin mainly to the Thorough- 
bred and Arabian horses, which were bred with the heavy draft 
horses, and produced a breed smaller in size than the draft horse, 
yet more stylish in action and of greater endurance. 

The Hackney Coach is a native of England, weighs 1000- 
1200 pounds, is used for park driving, is chestnut in color, and 
stands 15% to 1534 hands high. It is blockier in form than any 
of the other breeds of the coach horses. It is short legged, has a 
big, broad back, intelligent head, neat neck, strong, powerful 
loins, and a-perfect shoulder. The stylish, attractive action, espe- 
cially of the knees and hocks, that is its chief merit. Up to the 
_time of the auto it was in especial demand for fashionable driving. 

The French Coach horse is a native of France, but is not 
known by that name there but by the name Demi-Sang or half- 
blood. This name was at first given to offspring of Norman 
Draft Horses and English Thoroughbreds. It stands 15 to 16 
hands high, weighs 1200 to 1350 pounds, is used for coach driv- 
ing and is bay, or brown chestnut in color. The French Govern- 
ment has done much to encourage this breed, and to its aid, the 
. French coach horse or Dem1-Sang owes its present perfection. 
In general outline, it is not so smooth as the Hackney. It is a 
larger horse, has good body length with long, slightly-arched neck. 
It has larger bone and more powerful muscles. The action, in- 
stead of being high and flashy, as in the Hackney, is longer and 
more powerful. 

The German Coach horse was developed in northwestern 
Germany. It varies much in size and weight, from 16 to 16% 


70 SECOND QUARTER 


hands high, and from 1350 to 1450 in weight. It is used for 
heavy coach driving, or as a general utility horse. In color it 
is black, brown, or chestnut. It lacks the smooth outline and 
the symmetry of the Hackney. The action of the trot is longer, 
and lacks the high stylish action of the Hackney. 

The following are the main breeds of draft horses: 

Percheron, French Draft, both natives of France; Clydes- 
dale, a native of Scotland; Shire and Suffolk, both natives of 
England, and the Belgian, a native of Belgium. All are used for 
heavy hauling. The Percheron Draft horse was developed espe- 
cially in the region of La Perche, although they are found all 
throughout northwestern France. Oriental horses played a big 
part in the development of this breed. In the Eighth Century, 
during the Saracen invasion, great numbers of Arab, Barb, and 
Turkish horses were brought into the country. For over 200 
years the French Government has aided much in the improve- 
ment of the draft horses. The Percheron is 1514-17 hands high, 
is grey or black in color, and weighs 1800-2300 pounds. It is 
the most important draft breed in America. In form it is heavy 
and low set. Its weight is right for the ideal draft animal. The 
head is large and slightly heavy. Its face is straight, with large 
nostrils. The neck is short, strong, and well crested. The back 
is short, the chest deep and broad, the loins smooth with heavy 
muscles. On top the body is rather short, but long below. The 
ribs are strongly arched, and give a great depth. The croup is 
broad and wide, but with a steepness not desirable. The joints 
are medium, but strong and legs heavily muscled. The feet are 
large. The action is strong and true,and good both in trot and 
walk. It is a good mover, and if surpassed in this respect at all, 
is by the Clydesdale. 

The French Draft horse includes a number of types. Indeed 
the Percherons may be included in this number. It is common to 
refer to any draft horses brought from France as French draft 
horses, but this includes such as the Bretons, the Ardennais, the 
Picardys, the Nivernais, the Percherons, and the Boulonais. 

The Clydesdale Draft horse weighs 1800-2300 pounds, is a 
light bay, and stands 16 to 16%4 hands high. These horses owe 
their excellence to early interbreeding with the English horses, 
and to the soil of Scotland, which is able to support by forage 
large framed animals. Baron of Buchlyvie, a Clydesdale draft 
Hoe: sold for $47,500, the highest price ever paid for a draft 

orse. 3 | 

The Clydesdale differs from the Percheron in its action, its 
hairy legs, and in its markings, which are a white blaze on the 
face and one or more white feet. From the backs of the legs 
there is a heavy growth of long hair called the feather. It has 


SECOND QUARTER 71 


longer legs than the French draft, the body is longer and lighter, 
and the nose is often slightly Roman. 

The Shire stands 16 to 17 hands high, and weighs 1800-2300 
pounds, and is light bay in color. In color and feather of the legs, 
it much resembles the Clydesdale, but in shape, more the 
Percheron. It is perhaps more powerfully built than either, but 
lacks their graceful action. This is perhaps due to its straight 
shoulders, and short, heavily muscled legs. 

The Belgian draft horse stands 16-17 hands high, weighs 
1600-2300 pounds, and is bay, brown, or black in color. This 
breed is unlike other draft breeds, the result almost entirely of its 
own surroundings, and no one breed has been instrumental in 
aiding its improvement. It is even more compact than the 
Percheron, and has the maximum weight for its size. It has a 
very full breast, very broad and deep back, and the greatest body 
girth of any breed. The rump is short and steep, and has the 
objection of a low set tail. The nose is straight; it has no fealiery 
on the legs as have the Shire and Clydesdale. 

The Suffolk draft horse stands 16-17 hands high, weigil 
1600-2000 pounds, and is chestnut or bay. This breed is little 
- known in America. It is smaller than the other breeds, although 
it has greater body depth and circumference than the Fregch 
horse. 

Because of the small number of ponies in this region, they 
will not be discussed at length here. The chief breeds in America 
are: Shetland, Welsh, Exmoor, Arabian, Hackney, and the 
Mexican and Indians, which dealers do not recognize as breeds. 
In the South these ponies are called Mustangs; in the central and 
western states they are called Bronchos, and in the North, they 
are often spoken of as Cayuse. 


Uses of Horses 


The use of the horse on farms and in cities is varied. In the 
latter however motor vehicles have largely taken the horse’s 
place. This is due to two things—the increased speed of the 
motor vehicle which saves much time and the less expense both 
of time and money in maintaining and caring for a car. 

In large cities. especially horses are mainly seen on the 
bridle paths of our parks where they are ridden solely for 
pleasure.~ 

In the country, the horse has continued to hold its own 
better than in the city. While motor driven machinery has 
taken the place of horses in some farm activities, it will be a 
long time before they are wholly replaced. Owing to the dif- 
ficulty of using motor vehicles in muddy weather the horse will 
continue to hold his own as a means of accomplishing the average 


72 SECOND QUARTER 


hauling or pulling on the American farm. As one writer on the 
subject has well put it the motor is supplementing not supplanting 
the horse. 


How Horse Power on the Farm is Supplemented by Other 
Kinds of Power. 


On the average farm, horse power. is supplemented by 
various other kinds of power. Sometimes this power takes the 
place of gas stationery engines, More often it takes the form 
of automobiles, Fordsons, or similar motor vehicles. 

Especially is this true in the West where thousands of acres 
are owned and cultivated by one man and his hired help. Here a 
motor power engine will accomplish more work than a dozen 
horses in plowing, hauling, cultivating, and other kinds of heavy 
work. 

Electricity as yet is undeveloped along lines of supplanting 
or even supplementing the work of the horse on the farm. It has 
its uses around the home in churning, lighting, ironing, etc., but 
still is limited to that field. 


The Horse as an Animal, Characteristics; Parts; Head; Kars; 
Eyes; Neck; Legs and Feet. Compare Foot with that 
of Cow; Mouth; Teeth; Number; Kind; 
Relation to Age 


A horse’s usefulness is limited wholly by his power of loco- 
motion. In form he consists of a squared arch, which is sup- 
ported by his legs. The balance of this arch or the body is 
determined largely by two things—the hang of the head and 
tail. While all the legs serve to support the body, the greatest 
weight is borne by the forelegs, the hind legs in locomotion act- 
ing mainly as propellors. 

The horse belongs to the same general class of animals as 
the cow, being a mammalia. Like the cow, there are two general 
types. These are first for heavy work, and second for speed. 
In general, their characteristics are the same. Roughly speaking 
the horse may be divided into four parts. First, the head and 
neck. The forehead should be broad, full, and flat. The ears 
should be medium in size, pointed and carried alert. The eye 
should be large, full, bright, clear, lid thin, prominently set, 
intelligent. 

The muzzle should not be too fine, nostrils not dilated, lips 
thin, teeth regular and sound. The neck should be curved and 
the head well set. 

The forehead includes the withers, shoulders, arms, fore- 
arms, knees, canon, fetlocks, pasterns, feet and legs. 


SECOND QUARTER 73 


The feet should be of a size proportional to size of horse. 
The hoof should be smooth and dark colored. 

The third division is the body, which contains the chest, ribs, 
back, and loins. The chest should be deep and full. The ribs 
long well sprung. The loins should be broad, strong, full, deep. 

The fourth division is the hindquarters and include the hips, 
croup, tail, thighs, stifles, hocks, canons, fetlocks, pasterns, feet, 
legs. 

It is difficult to give any description of a horse unless one 
specifies draft or speed types, for the thing that might point one 
out as a high bred horse of one type, would perhaps utterly con- 
demn it as a pure bred horse of the other. 

The horse’s foot when compared to that of a cow is seen to 
be much different. The cow has two well defined toes, the horse 
has a single toe or hoof. Perhaps it will make it clearer to us if 
we place the tip of the middle finger of our hand on the table, 
holding the hand meanwhile upright. The nail of our finger will 
represent the hoof of the horse, the finger corresponds to the 
pastern, the middle bone of your hand to the canon, the forearm 
to the horse’s forearm, and the arm to the arm, so-called of the 
horse. } 

If we take the hind leg of the horse, and imagine ourselves 
standing on the tip of our middle toe, the toe nail will correspond 
to the hoof, the toe to the pastern, the ball of the foot to the 
feltock, the heel to the hock, the shin bone to the leg and the 
knee to the stifle. i 

Mares have eighteen teeth in each jaw—six incisors and 
twelve molars. 

Geldings and stallions have in addition two canines, making 
twenty teeth in each jaw. The first three molars and all the 
‘incisors are temporary and are replaced. 

Cattle have no incisors on the upper jaw and eight on the 
lower. In number the molars are the same as those of the horse. 
The first three are temporary and are replaced as are those of 
the horse. 

The following table may be of aid in telling the age of horses 
from their teeth: 


Kinp oF TootH LOCATION APPEAR REPLACED 

my Glare same First Birth 2% 
Second Birth 3 
Third Birth 3% 
Fourth About 11 mo. Arenotreplaced 
Fifth 2 yrs. Are not replaced 
Sixth 41%4 to 5 yrs. Arenotreplaced 


@anmies. . 2%... 4-5 yrs. ~ Are not replaced 


74 SECOND QUARTER 


Kinp oF TootH LOCATION APPEAR REPLACED 
VUCISOfss. yes Middle Birth 2% years. 
Center 4-6 wks. 3% 
Comer 6-9 mo. 4Y, 


Up to four years of age the above table is of help in judging 
the age of horses. After that, other indications must be taken 
into consideration. At about six years of age the cups wear out 
of the center pair of incisors in the lower jaw. At about seven 
the cups wear out of the middle pair of incisors. At about eight 
years of age they wear out of the comer incisors. 

At nine years the cups wear out of the central upper incisors 
of the middle pair and of the comer at twelve. 

However, in judging the age of a horse by the wearing of its 
teeth several things must be taken into account. First, what kind 
of food, second, the structure of the teeth themselves, soft teeth 
wearing off much earlier than small hard teeth, the way the teeth 
meet, and others. The upper incisors are much less reliable than 
the lower as a means of indicating age. After twelve years the 
teeth are a poor indication of age. 


Care of Horses, Shelter, Cleanliness, Ventilation, Feeding, Kinds 
of Food, Regularity of Feeding, Balanced Ration, 
Watering, Breaking, Harness, Essentials, of 
Good Horsemanship 


Care of Horses 


Perhaps the one great essential in the care of horses is proper 
grooming. Nothing adds so much to the beauty and luster of 
the coat as this. On reaching the stable the horse should be un- 
harnessed, fed, given a thorough grooming and blanketed. The 
legs should be given a thorough and quick brushing. It is well 
for the farmer to remember that time spent on the horses at the 
end of the day’s work is worth twice that time spent in the 
morning. 

The teeth of a horse needs frequent attention also. If the 
milk teeth do not come out in the proper time, they should be 
pulled with forceps. As the permanent teeth wear the inside 
of the lower and the outside of the upper molars may become 
sharp, and irritate lips and tongue. If this condition exists, it 
should be remedied with a guarded rasp. 

A horse should be clipped over the entire body. It not only 
improves the appearance of his coat, but also prevents his taking 
cold, since the animal does not get so warm. It also makes the 
horse easier to keep clean. If horses are not to be protected from 
cold.and wet during the winter, they should not be clipped in 
the fall. 


Oe i ie eo: 
SECOND QUARTER 75 


A good, liberal bed should be provided for the working horse. 
This should not be allowed to become dirty, since foul bedding 
lessens the rest of the animal and tends to produce disease. Old 
straw makes the ideal bedding, as it is dryer and more elastic. 
However, if straw is high, substitutes may be used. 

Blankets for horses are indispensable in cold, wet weather. 
When a horse is very hot and sweating, he should not be 
blanketed until he has ceased to steam; otherwise the blanket 
will become wet, and remain so all night. In a quarter of an 
hour the horse should have cooled off, but during this time, he 
should not remain in a draft. In summer, blankets may be left 
off, if the stable is screened. The summer blanket should be of 
clean, light-weight material. Whenever the nights begin to get 
cool, if the heavy blanket is resumed, a. heavy growth of hair 
will be prevented, and clipping may be unnecessary. If the horse 
is clipped, he should be very heavily covered for a while. The 
use of the outdoor blanket is even more important than the stable 
blanket. If one is going to stop but a short time, the temptation 
comes not to use the blanket, but in cold weather it is much safer 
to do so. 

During all the active life of the horse the feet require fre- 
quent attention and care. [Each evening after a horse returns 
from work, the sole of the foot should be examined and all dirt 
or other materials removed. A small hay hook with a sharpened 
point is good for this work. If the hoofs seem dry and brittle, 
they should be kept oiled with linseed or olive oil or some good 
hoof ointment. Horses confined to the stable should have their 
hoofs trimmed to prevent their growing out long. Shoeing should 
be done only by a competent horse shoer, and the shoe fitted to 
the hoof after it has become cooled. Sick horses often need rest 
and care rather than medicine and many veterinary bills may be 
saved by a little care and attention as to bedding, covering, and 
proper food. It is well, if medicine must be given, never to put it 
in food or water, unless it is tasteless and odorless. 


Shelter, Cleanliness, Ventilation 


There are several desirable ways of housing horses. Where 
means permit, there should be a separate horse barn. In addition 
to this, there may be a shed open on the south, which is usually 
sufficient to winter colts except. iniextreme weather. The main 
requirements for a horse barn is that it be dry, sanitary, and 
reasonably secure against cold winds. The quarters should be 
kept clean, and comfortable bedding provided. A coal tar disin- 
fectant used occasionally is a wise precaution against lice or other 
parasites. 


76 SECOND QUARTER 


Feeding of Horses, Kinds of Food 


It may be well to begin with the feeding of the young colt 
in discussing the question of feeding, as to the age of weaning 
the colt, conditions must decide. It is usual to wean them at 
five or six months of age. The colt may be fed grain or simply 
turned out on the grass, if it has been accustomed to grass. 
However, in the case of draft horses, feeding is advisable. Good, 
clean clover hay is usually liked, while timothy is commonly fed. 
Well cured alfalfa is one of the best, but if fed should be used in 
connection with timothy or corn fodder. Sheaf oats may be 
added for variety, but the colts should never be given an excess 
of dry feed. Oats, corn, and peas, ground, are suitable cereals. 
Bran and oil meal may be fed to supply protein and give variety. 
Silage and cottonseed meal are not suited to colts, but sliced 
carrots and sugar beets are good for them. Until the colt is two 
years old, not over one pound of grain per 100 pounds live weight 
should be given. Equally important are salt, good water, plenty 
of fresh air, and exercise for the young colt for the first year. 
Colts should be changed from dry feed to pasture gradually. 
For working horses there is a great variety of foods, but the 
one rule applies to all—it must be clean, wholesome, and sound. 
Many diseases may be traced to the feeding of moldy hay and 
grain. During the winter when not at work, less grain is neces- 
sary, but when spring work begins, the same animal will require 
less hay and more grain. Plenty of clean, fresh water is one of 
the greatest needs of the horse. It is the most fastidious of all 
animals about its drinking water, and will often go thirsty before 
it will drink dirty or tepid water. Three times a day is none too 
often to water horses, and if they are at work, oftener. When 
horses are at heavy work, the noon feed should be largely of 
grain. A drink after being fed is a kindly consideration at 
any time. 


Regularity of Feeding 


Regularity is one of the essentials in caring for horses. They 
learn to expect their feed in a certain order, and not only dis- 
satisfaction but even digestive troubles are likely to result if this 
order is disregarded. 


Balanced Ration 
Oats, corn, and timothy hay are perhaps the standard rations 
for horses, but clover and alfalfa are also good and may be fed 
in varying amounts. Red clover hay on some farms furnishes the 
‘sole diet of horses during winter months. It makes little dif- 
ference what roughage is fed, provided concentrates are fed that 
will balance up the diet. If legume hay is used, the concentrates 


SECOND QUARTER 17 


need not be high in protein, but if timothy, or corn stover, or 
other carbonaceous foods are feed, bran or oil meal should also 
be given. Oats are and have long been considered the ideal feed 
for horses of the light type, but for work or draft types, their 
value has perhaps been overestimated. 

Corn is a good feed, but if fed in connection with corn stover 
or timothy, the feed contains too little protein. Then oats, bran, 
or oil meals may be added. These may be given in large quantt- 
ties two or three times a week, or in small quantities daily . They 
may be fed dry or in mashes. Barley is fed in many stables, 
especially to breeding horses. Cottonseed meal is becoming more 
common as a feed but should be fed with caution, not over a 
pound or two a day. The carrot is perhaps the best root crop 
for the horse. Only a few should be given, two or three times a 
week. Salt should be provided in rock form and be procurable 
by the horse at all times. 

The condition of the horse, the season, weather, and work 
performed are all important factors in deciding the question of 
feed. Hence, only suggestions rather than rules can be given here. 

The Wolff-Lehman Standards may be taken as a fairly safe 
guide. Per 1000 pounds live weight at light work, the dry 
matter required will be 20 pounds, protein, 1.5; carbohydrates, 
9.5; fat, 4. For medium work, 24 pounds dry matter, 2 protein, 
11 carbohydrates, and .6 fat. 

For heavy work, 26 pounds dry matter, 2.5 protein, 13.3 
carbohydrates, and .8 fat. 


x Watering 

Horses need a full and frequent supply of water but care 
should be used in giving it to them. He should never be watered 
if very warm, or if water is given, limit the quantity and do not 
have it too cold. Horses on dry feed require more water than 
if on pasture. The time to water is a disputed question, but most 
say water before a hay feed and after a grain feed. 


Breaking of Horses 


In breaking horses and especially in handling young colts, 
one of the first things that must be insisted upon is that the animal 
under no circumstances ever be scared. A reliable trainer never 
allows any one to chase or throw at a young colt. The use of the 
halter should be taught early, first by leading, then by driving. 
From the very beginning the young colt should be taught to be 
handled, but one should be careful in handling the ears, the 
flanks, and the backs of the fore legs, as these parts are very 
sensitive. Never catch a colt around the neck. In catching it 
one hand should be put under the neck, the other under the hams. 


78 SECOND QUARTER 


Colts caught in this way will let one walk up to them, while if 
caught around the neck, are often approached with difficulty. In 
training to the use of the halter, select an old one that has been 
used recently, preferably by the mother. But is should be strong. 
Never pull on the nose band. To do so may result in later de- 
formed necks or face lines. In teaching the colt to lead he should 
be taken over familiar ground, as to the water trough and back. 
He should never be pulled along, but coaxed. In fact, the harder 
the man pulls forward, the harder the colt is apt to pull back- 
ward. However, if he refuses to follow by coaxing, take a small 
rope. Tie a ring to one end. Put this quietly over the colt’s 
back just in front of the hips with the ring on the under side of 
the body, so that when the other end of the rope is put through 
the ring, the rope will be drawn tightly around the flanks. Pass 
the rope under the body between the fore legs, then through the 
halter ring. Pull gently on the halter, then if the colt shakes 
his head and refuses to move, pull gently on the rope. Don't 
hurry him, but give him time to get used to the notion, and he 
soon will follow without trouble. 

The next lesson should be that of driving with the lines. At 
about two years of age, he should be trained to the use of the bit. 
This is perhaps one of the most important parts of his training, 
for should his mouth be ruined as a colt, it may result in imper- 
fections never later overcome. A biting harness is valuable in 
accustoming the colt to the bit. When the harness is properly ad- 
justed he should be turned into the familiar lot, and left to ac- 
custom himself to the new arrangement. 


Harness 


A colt should be trained from the first to stand still while 
being harnessed. One that is continually on the move is never 
more than half trained at best. When he has grown accustomed 
to the bit, he may be harnessed. Never use new harness the first 
time, but strong harness that has been used by horses the colt 
knows. It is best to put the harness on for the first time when 
the colt is tired. Let him smell of it if he wishes, then put it 
on him quietly—just as if he were an old horse. Never throw 
the harness on. It will do more to frighten him than anything 
else. Be sure the harness fits. Should it abrade the back or tail, 
a vicious horse may be the result. Then the colt may be hitched 
either single or double.. Nothing more than mere suggestions 
can be given here, but the one invariable rule is gentleness and 
quietness in handling a colt. They are nervous and sensitive to a 
fault, and the trainer must inspire the colt with a sense of trust- 
fulness and lack of harm or danger, and, above all, should the 
trainer remember that the chief future usefulness of the horse 


SECOND QUARTER 79 


will depend upon the training and treatment during the breaking 
period. Harness that is properly fitted and comfortable adds 
much to the efficiency of the horse. Many owners are thought- 
lessly cruel to their horses by using poorly fitted harness and irri- 
tating bits. There are many bits on the markets many of which 
are intended and are useful only as punishment. For a tender 
mouth, a good sized leather or rubber covered straight bit is 
perhaps the best. The bit should fit the mouth and not be too 
long. Sometimes it is necessary to try several bits before a 
suitable one is found. Once that a horse has grown accustomed 
to a bit it is often difficult to get him accustomed to any other. 
The curb bit is often used on high stepping animals, but should 
never be used by anyone unfamiliar with it, or it may prove an 
instrument of torture to the animwl. The chief rein should be 
properly adjusted. The day of the extreme checks has fortunately 
passed. The over check and the side check are the two most 
popular. The former was first intended for trotters, but has 
been also adopted for driving horses. By it the horse’s head is 
held in such a position that he is unable to see the ground in 
front of him, and also lessens his efficiency at pulling. But the 
horse should always be reined slightly. Unless so reined, he is 
apt to grow careless in his gait, and to attempt to eat while stand- 
ing. This allows the harness to slip down, and may lead to 
accidents. 

Great care should be taken in fitting the collar. Every animal 
should have his own collar that has been properly adjusted. 
Breast harness is permissible only for light driving. Many hold 
that in importance to the collar and bit comes the crupper. This 
should be carefully fitted, since sores on the tail lessen the relia- 
bility of any horse. 

The use of fly nets is advisable, but since they are expensive 
and require time in adjusting, many drivers have dispensed with 
them. However, if flies are very troublesome, some sort of pro- 
tection may become necessary. Good canvass ones are not on 
the market at reasonable prices, and are very effectvie in 
protecting horses both from flies and sun. Before one leaves the 
subject of harness, it seems well to say a word in regard to the 
care of this part of the horse’s equipment. It is most important 
that the harness be kept scrupulously clean at all times. This is 
especially true of the collar, saddle or crupper. These parts rest 
directly on the horse’s skin, and unless they are kept free from 
dust and sweat, sores are apt to result. Every farmer knows how 
sore shoulders lessen the efficiency of his horses during the heavy 
work season. 


80 SECOND QUARTER 
4 
Mes, 
Essentials of Good Horsemanship 

Perhaps the one great essential of good horsemanship is a 
sympathetic knowledge and understanding of horses. No person 
who does not understand and like horses can ever succeed in 
handling them. The famous jockeys of all times have been small, 
but never nervous in temperment. Between them and _ their 
mounts there was an understanding little less than human. Horses 
are always shy of strangers, and resent familiarity on their part. 

Some people are naturally timid around animals. This type 
will never make good horsemen. A horse soon learns his driver. 
Indeed, the horse more often knows his driver better than the 
driver knows his horse. 

Another essential of good horsemanship is confidence—con- 
fidence not only in yourself but in your mount. A person who 
doubts his ability to handle a horse never handles him. He.must 
know, and make the horse know, he is master. 

Another essential is never frighten a horse. If he sees some- 
thing strange, let him examine it until he satisfies his curiosity, 
for his interest at first in the strange object may be merely curti- 
osity, not fear. 

A horse should never be allowed to run away. Once this 
has happened one can never be sure when it may happen again. 

Another essential is kindness. The horse is one of the most 
sensitive of animals, and re-acts very quickly to kind or harsh 
treatment. The Arabs have breed the most wonderful horses in 
the world with dispositions without equal in the world, but the 
Bedouin treated his horse as a member of his family. It slept 
with him in his tent. It shared his rugs, it ate from his hand, 
and he would sooner part with his right hand than with his horse. 
For this reason, the securing of Arabian horses for breeding pur- 
poses has presented difficulties met with in no other lines of 
animal buying. 


| SWINE OR HOGS 
Tis Breeds of Swine in District; Characteristics of Each 

We found there were two types of cattle—beef and dairy— 
and two types of horses—light and draft. We also find there are 
two types of hogs—lard and bacon, but for various reasons the 
Jatter is’so little known that many people can justly claim that 
they never heard of it. The lard type is by far the more common 
throughout the United States, principally because corn is the 
chief feed for hogs in the United States, and as it is deficient 
in ash and protein, tends to produce fat rather than lean meat. 
For this reason it is often called the American type of hog. The 
bacon type is raised mainly in Denmark, Great Britain, and 
Canada. 


SECOND QUARTER 81 


The principle breeds of the lard type are: Poland-China, 
Berkshire, Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, and Hampshire. The 
Tamworth and Large Yorkshire are the two main breeds of the 
bacon type. 

The lard hog is low and compact. Its body is wide and deep, 
with shoulders full but not coarse. The hind quarters are full 
and carried out straight to the tail. The flesh should be carried 
_ well down to the hock. The flesh should be heavy and evenly 
distributed over the whole body. Market conditions control the 
weight. The demand now is for lighter animals—those from 175 
to 250 pounds bringing the best price. 

The Poland China perhaps lead in a etien and favor in the 
United States at the present time. They are natives of our 
country. They are medium in size, black in color, and have 
drooping ears. It was developed in southern Ohio, in the Miami 
River valley. Several foreign breeds were used in grading up the 
original stock. 

The Poland China hog is black with six white points—white 
on the face, tip of tail, and feet. The face is straight with medium 
length head. The body i is broad and deep, back curved, and low 
rump. The legs are short and well formed hams. 

The Berkshire hog perhaps is next in number. It is a native 
of England, is medium in size, black in color, and has short, erect 
ears. Its color and marking is similar to the Poland China— 
black with six white points. The head of the Berkshire is short 
and dish faced. In body, it lacks both the depth and width of 
the Poland China, but it has a level, straight back, and long, 
level rump. There is much less arch to the back of the Berkshire 
than to the Poland China. 

The quality of the meat of the Berkshire is preferred by 
many to the Poland China since there is much less external fat, 
but far better “marbling.” 

The next in favor is perhaps the Chester White. This type 
is divided into three groups, each with somewhat different origin. 
They are: the original Chester White, Todd’s Improved Chester 
White, and the Ohio Improved Chester White. The Chester 
White is a native of the United States. It is white, large in size, 
and has drooping ears. Its head is of medium length, with face 
straight. The large ears are drooping. The body has not the 
width or depth of the Poland China, but the back is straighter: 
The quality of its meat ranks between that of the Poland China 
and Berkshire. 

The Duroc Jersey originated in the United States. It is 
medium in size, has drooping ears, and is red in color. Its origin 
is unknown, but perhaps owes its color at least to the Guinea 
breed brought from Africa, red hogs from Spain, or those from 


82 SECOND QUARTER 


Portugal. In many points it is very similar to the Poland China — 
Its head is of medium length, somewhat dish faced, and ears 
drooping. The back is broad and deep, but straighter than that 
of the Poland China. Their meat is similar in flavor and quality, 
but where corn fed is too fat for foreign trade. 

The Hampshire hog originated in America. It is black with 
white belt. Its ears are erect, and the body is medium in size. 
The breed is easily distinguished by a white belt which runs 
around the body at the girth. The head of the Hampshire is of 
good length, and the face straight. The ears are erect and bend 
somewhat forward. Its body lacks the length, breadth, and depth 
of the Poland China hog. It is held by its admirers that the meat 
of the Hampshire is unsurpassed in quality by that of any of the 
other lard type. 

The two bacon types are known as the Tamworth and 
Yorkshire. They are both of. British origin, and little known in 
the United States. The bacon type is very different from the lard 
tvpe, having a longer body, longer legs, lighter in neck and 
shoulders, and less width of back. The charactertistic point is the 
spring of the ribs, giving great depth to the body. The color of 
the Tamworth varies from light to dark red. The Yorkshire is 
white. 

Care of Swine 

Most of the disease to which hogs are liable are due to care- 
lessness or indifference in management of swine. Most hogs have 
‘lice or fleas. A hog whose vitality is drained by these vermin is 
much more likely to be susceptible to disease than one free from 
them. 

One of the first things to be observed in beginning hog 
raising is the careful selection of a breed. One should consider 
the breeds raised around him, local conditions, and market de- | 
mands before making his selection. All newly purchased hogs - 
should be dipped in a coal tar disinfectant before being allowed 
the run of a pasture. This precaution may save much time, money, 
and trouble later. — 

Feeding Swine for Market 

No farm animal will turn food into flesh as quickly as the 
hog. If healthy, no other farm animal is so easily cared for. 
It requires little shelter, and will eat anything. 

There is one rule that never varies, and that is the larger and 
older the hog, the more food that is required to-fatten aioe mere 
have been many experiments made as to preparing the foods for 
pigs, but at best, the.results have been most contradictory, and 
show that conditions and food used have much to do with the 
efficiency. 


a 
SECOND QUARTER 83 


Some advise that the feed should be ground, but this de- 
pends both upon the feed and the age of the animals. If corn is 
very hard and dry, it should be ground. With the small grains, 
such as peas, millet, and beans, it is best to grind it. 

Some recommend soaking the grain. Others oppose it, say- 
ing that if soaked, hogs tend to eat it without chewing. However, 
if soaked, it is more palatable, and succulent. 

Few now recommend cooking pig food. If cooked, the cooker 
should contain a variety of foods, as cereals, root crops, and the 
like. At about three weeks of age, young pigs will usually show 
indications of trying to root, or eat the mother’s feed. They 
now should be given sweet, fresh milk about three times daily. 
Do not let the milk be sour, or trouble will result. A few days 
later, a gruel of bran and shorts may be given. Between seven 
and ten weeks is the best time to wean. 

Hogs are usually fattened and marketed before they are one 
year old. If the hogs are to be marketed light, the fattening 
process will begin much earlier, than if heavy lard hogs are de- 
sired. Winter and summer feeding are quite different. Small 
droves usually fatten quickest. The hogs should be uniform in 
size, age, shape, and color. 

Pigs should be put on full rations gradually. Their appe- 
tites should always be kept keen. They should be fed both mash 
and dry grain, if possible. 

Meal and skim milk makes the ideal food. They make better 
and more rapid gains if they have access to green forage. It is 
more profitable if possible to cut and feed the forage, for this 
prevents their using up their flesh in rustling, and also supports 
more hogs on less pasture. Cool, fresh water and abundant shade 
are two very important factors in the summer fattening of hogs. 
Hogs cannot perspire, and therefore suffer much during the heat 
of summer. To avoid this, many feeders plan to sell by the first 
of July. f 

Winter feeding requires much different foods, and better 
results will be gained if roots, such as turnips, sugar beets, pota- 
toes, artichokes, or even pumpkins are added for variety. Skim 
milk for succulence excels all else for winter feeding. Mashes, 
as used for summer feeding, are also good. Sweet, clean clover 
or alfalfa should be fed from a rack as dry forage. 

Lots free from mud and dry quarters are especially desirable 
as winter quarters for hogs. If corn is fed, the quarters need not 
be as warm as if more succulent food is given. 


Hog Houses 


While the average hog does not need an upholstered cage, 
he will undoubtedly do better if properly housed. Plenty of 


7 Ming 
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wi age 


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84 SECOND QUARTER a eee 


light and good ventilation are of prime importance in the pig 
house. It should be dry and well drained. There are two types 
of houses that are to be recommended—large house and individual 
houses or cots. 

Large houses are apt to be expensive and hard to clean. They 
are also apt to be located where pasture is not readily accessible. 

The individual hog house is to be recommended for several 
reasons. First, it is apt to be more sanitary since it may be 
readily moved from one place to another. It gives Mrs. Pig more 
privacy when she is raising her little Porkers, and in case of 
disease, it makes segregation of the animals an easy matter. As it 
can be constructed from odds and ends of lumber around the 
farm, its cost is slight. 


Care and Management of Brood Sow and Pigs 


Milk is the first food for the young pig, but by the time it is 
three or four weeks old, it should be having middlings, shelled 
corn, or cornmeal and skim milk. “Slop” should be fed early. 
This should be fresh, clean, and sweet. This should be fed the 
young pigs in a separate pen from the older pigs. They with the 
mother should have the run of pastures where they have clover, 
alfalfa, or other forage crops. 

The great fattening food is corn, but as long as the young 
pigs depend on their mother for at least part of their feed, this 
need not be given in large quantities. . 

Mother and young pigs should be separated from the other 
swine, both because there is danger of the young one’s becoming 
injured, and because the mother will take better care of the little 
ones if alone with them. They should have plenty of clean, fresh 
water, and plenty of shade in the summer. They should have a 
separate house to themselves, which is clean, airy, and well pro- 
vided with bedding. 


Diseases of Hogs and Treatment 


As a rule, swine suffer from fewer diseases than any other 
farm animal, yet these diseases are more serious than those which 
the farmer has to treat in other animals. The three chief plagues 
of the swine raisers are: Cholera, swine plague, and tuberculosis. 

The two former are much more virulent than the latter, 
and probably cause farmers and stockmen in the corn belt greater 
financial losses than any other disease known. All three are in- 
fectious diseases. Cleanliness and sanitation may do much to 
prevent the spread of these diseases. At present there are 
serums on the market that promise much in eradicating these 
evils, but their results have been more or less contradictory, so 
that some farmers are still depending more on prevention than 


-4 


SECOND QUARTER 85 


on cure. The Government from time to time issues bulletins on 
this subject, and swine raisers and breeders would do well to 
keep in touch with developments along these lines through these 
bulletins. 

Cholera is a germ disease and the only precautions that sae 
be taken are those that will keep the germ away from the herd. 
Every farm should have a quarantine lot, where animals that do 


not seem well should be placed and watched. Also all new stock 


purchased should be placed here under observation for at least six 
to eight weeks. 

Tuberculosis is a more treacherous disease, and is often not 
discovered until the hog is slaughtered. Government examination 
made of all carcasses often reveals the presence of this disease 
when it was unknown before. 

It is often best, if hogs are known to have tuberculosis in 
advanced stages to kill them and burn the body, rather than risk 
infecting others. In the case of valuable animals, a veterinary’s 
advice should be secured. 

A farmer may recognize hogs that are taking cholera by their 
actions and appearance. They refuse feed, lie in the shade, the 
hair becomes rough, the eyes red, and with a sticky discharge. 
There is usually a slight cough. The walk will be uncertain and 
the hind legs weak. The skin will become blotched and red, and 
if a post mortem is made, ulcers are usually found along the 
intestines. With cholera, an ounce of prevention is worth ten 
pounds of cure, and if cholera is in the neighborhood, notify the 
State authorities and ask to have the herd inoculated. 


SHEEP 


Study of Animal, Adult and Lamb 

‘Like the horse and cow, the sheep is a mammalia. Like 
the cow, it also has a stomach containing four divisions. 

Like the cow, the sheep chews a cud, like goats, chamois, 
muskoxen, cattle and antelopes, all of which belong to the family 
Bovidae. It is different from the others of its family in size 
and covering. It carries its head more erect, and its muzzle is 
narrow, covered with short hairs and divided by a verticle cleft. 
Owing to the mobility of its lips the sheep grazes much closer 
than the ox. Most modern breeds have no horns. 

The wool varies in density from 600 to 1500 fibers per square 
inch in finess from 1/300 or more to 1/3300 of an inch in diameter. 
In length it varies from 12 months growth from less than 1 inch 
to more than 15 inches. The shortest wool is the finest and 
densest, usually grows in the region of the shoulders, about mid- 
way between top and bottom line of body. Coarse wool grows on 
outer thighs, the shortest on the belly. 


86 SECOND QUARTER 


— Types of Sheep 


The sheep is of two_types—the mutton type, and the wool 
type. As their names indicate, the former is raised for its flesh, 
and the latter for the wool it will produce. The mutton type 
demands a full, plump body, while the wool type demands as 
much skin surface as possible, and in this type the skin is thrown 
into folds. 


Type and Breeds in the Community 

There are three wool type breeds in the United States. 
They are: American Merino, Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet. 

The American Merino is really of Spanish origin, but since 
it has been so greatly improved in the United States, it is 
spoken of as a native of this country. It is white in color, its 
wool varies from two to three inches in length, while the fleece 
will weigh from 12-25 pounds. The animal itself will weigh 
100-150 pounds. Its head is small, with white nose and ears. 
The ewes are hornless, but the rams have heavy twisted horns. 
The skin should be a bright pink in color. Along the head, 
breast, shoulders, and lower sides, thighs, and rump, it often 
lays in folds. It produces the finest wool of any sheep. This 
wool contains an excess of oil, often as much as 60 or 65 per 
cent of the total weight. 

The Delaine Merino is also white and a native of the United 
States. Its wool varies from three to five inches in length, - 
while the weight of the fleece is ten to twenty pounds, and the 
weight of the animal 100-150 pounds. Material spun from its 
wool is very durable, and has great strength. In a general 
way, this breed is similar to the American Merino. There. are 
several families of the Delaines and they vary a good deal from 
each other, hence the Delaines cannot well be compared with 
any other breed without making statements that will be false 
to one or Other of the families. 

The Rambouillet is a native of France. It is white, with 
wool three to four inches in length. The animal weighs 150-185 
pounds, while the fleece weighs 10-15 pounds. 

The Rambouillet is somewhat larger than the American 
merino, and has a somewhat smoother body. It has also been 
criticised for a too great length of leg, and a coarseness of bone. 

There are seven breeds of mutton sheep, all having their 
origin in England, except the Cheviot, which is claimed by 
Scotland. 

The Southdown is gray in color, with rather a short wool 
two or three inches in length. The animal will weigh 125-175 
pounds, while the fleece average four to eight pounds. It was 
the first of the mutton breeds to be improved, and has long been 


SECOND QUARTER 87 


the favorites of royalty. The head is of medium size and horn- 
less, with the face well covered with wool. The neck is short and 
thick, shoulders full and broad, back straight, ribs well arched 
and long, hind quarters long, with a rump broad, square and full. 
The skin is a bright pink and the fleece should be compact, of 
medium length, and contain some oil. The wool is white. 

The Shropshire breed is of obscure origin, but was developed 
and improved upon by Samuel Meire of recent date. The color 
of its points is dark brown. Its wool is three or four inches in. 
length. The animal weighs 155-225 pounds, while the wool 
weighs eight to twelve pounds. It is one of the heaviest of the 
mutton breeds. Its head is hornless and is covered with wool 
almost to the end of the nose. It is usually taller than the South- 
down. 

In color, points and length of wool the Hampshire breed 
resembles the Shropshire. But it is larger in size, being from 
180-250 pounds, with a fleece that weighs five to eight pounds. 
The early history of this breed is unknown, but marked improve- 
ment on it began in 1834, when William Humphrey, of Oak Ash, 
Newbury, England, began cross breeding with Southdowns. The 
Hampshire is larger and coarser than the Southdowns. The 
ears are large and drooping and the face and legs almost black. 

The Oxford Down is one of the largest breeds of mutton 
sheep, weighing 200-325 pounds, with a fleece of six to ten 


_—. pounds in weight. Its wool averages four to six inches in length, 


and the color of its points is brown. This breed is of comparative 
recent origin in the county of Oxford. It is larger and coarser 
than the Southdown, has a longer fleece, and darker points. It 
has a longer and coarser fleece than any other. of the mutton 
breeds. The skin is somewhat bluish, with black spots, and some- 
times hairs in the fleece. However, these objections are being 
tapidly overcome by careful breeding. 
The Suffolk Down weighs 180-240 pounds, with a fleece 
weighing five to eight pounds. Its length of wool is three to 
five inches, while the color of its points is black. It is the result 
of cross breeding between the old Norfolk and the Southdown 
breeds. It is one of the most conspicuous examples of success- 
ful cross breeding found among sheep. It has a black face, 
clean, long, black legs, black ears, which are rather large, with 
a tendency to droop. While the Suffolk and Hampshire resemble 
each other, the former may be distinguished by the bareness of 
the head, which is usually quite free of wool. 
The Dorset is a pure white sheep, weighing 150-225 pounds, 
fleece weighing six to nine pounds, and wool in length three or 
four inches. This is one of the oldest distinct breeds of sheep, 


88 SECOND QUARTER 


no other having been bred into it. Both male and females have 
horns. It is larger and longer of body and leg than the South- 
down. The face and legs are pure white. 

The Cheviot breed originated in the Cheviot hills separat- 
ing England and Scotland. It weighs 150-225 pounds, with a 
fleece six to ten pounds in weight, and wool five to eight inches 
in length. The legs of this breed, as well as the face, are white 
and free of wool, while the body is closely covered with a long, 
soft, pure white wool. It is very hardy and active in tempera- 
ment, being characteristically Scotch in this respect. 

There are four breeds of sheep known as the long wool 
breeds of mutton sheep. They all originated in England, with 
the exception of the Black Faced Highland, which is a native 
of Scotland. These are: the Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln and 
the Black Faced Highland. 

The lenght of the wool varies from six to ten in the Leices- 
ter, eight to fourteen in the Cotswold, ten to eighteen in the 
Lincoln and eight to fourteen in the Black Faced Highland. 

In weights they vary from 180-240 pounds in the Leicester 
to 200-265 in the Cotswold, and 275-350 in the Lincoln. 

In the Leicester breed, the fleece is excellent for coarse 
wool, and lies in spiral locks all over the body. The face is 
covered with fine hairs, which are becoming soft and white. 

The Cotswold resembles the Leicester, but is larger and 
has longer wool. The head is the distinguishing feature of the 
Cotswold, in that its has curls or locks which hang over the 
forehead, and often extend to the nostrils. : 

The Lincoln breed is the largest and longest fleeced breed 
of sheep in Britain. 

The Black Faced Highland is a native of Scotland. It is 
the oldest breed of sheep in Britain, and little is known of its 
origin. Both male and female have horns. Those of the male 
are spiral, but those of the female are small, thin, and but slightly 
curved. Its fleece is long and coarse. The legs and face are 
black. | 


O Value of Sheep 


The value of the sheep on farms cannot be overestimated. 
In the first place, no other material can quite take the place of 
wool as clothing. Not only as garments, but for use all over 
the home, wool is unsurpassed as a fabric. Not only do sheep 
produce clothing material, but its flesh is vary palatable and 
nutritious. Since the sheep is usually freer of diseases than 
either the hog or cow, it is a more sanitary and safer meal than 
that of either of the above. Its chief value to the farmer is 
that sheep will thrive and do well on land too poor and barren 


SECOND QUARTER 89 


to be of any other use. Through the use of sheep great areas 
of semi-desert lands have been made of great economic im- 
. portance. 

| The sheep requires about twice as much digestible organic 
matter per 100 pounds gain as the pig, but since much of the 
sheep’s food is roughage, this stalk is to the sheep’s advantage. 


Characteristics of a Good Fleece 


The five following points are the characteristics by which 
a good wool is judged. 

1. The density of the wool or the number of fibers to the 
square inch. 

2. The textile strength or the weight each can bear without 
breaking. ; 

3. Its color and gloss. 

4. Its elasticity or ability to curl up after being stretched. 

5. The length when uncurled and stretched. 

There are two general classes of wool—the combing grades, 
including the fine and short grades, and the carding wool that 
includes the long and coarse grades. 

Merino wool is the chief wool on the American market, and 
is used in making all fine woolen clothes, yet the coarser grades 
are much used in materials requiring weight and strength. 


Sheep Industry 


High, dry lands are the ideal locations for raising sheep. 
However, they may be raised almost anywhere except on wet, 
- swampy land. -No one unless he has sufficient land to insure a 
change of grazing pastures can expect to find sheep raising very 
profitable. They do better on short, fine grasses than on coarse, 
high feed. However, if they are turned out to clean up brushy 
land—which they will do to certain extent—they need not be 
expected to produce a high grade of wool or good lambs. Grain 
feeding is scarcely profitable or necessary when one has good 
grazing lands. One hundred pounds per year is the maximum 
that is likely to prove profitable under any conditions for an ewe 
and her lambs. Roots and silage furnish cheap feed, and are 
especially valuable for ewes in the winter. 

The main essentials of sheep barns are dryness and trecdoan 
from drafts. Sheep stand the cold well, except the young lambs. 
Protection from winter rains and snowfall is necessary. Sheep 
never thrive well in close, ill ventilated barns. 

Woven wire, rails, or boards should be used as fencing. 

While sheep require the least care of any farm animals, 
one should not make the mistake of thinking success can be 
made of sheep raising without giving time or work to it. The 


90 SECOND QUARTER 


wants of sheep are entirely different from those of any other 
farm animal and especially at lambing time, constant day and 
night care is often required to save both lambs and ewes. 

Stubble and stalk fields form good fall sheep pasture, if 
fed before the fall rains. Later, clover and grass pasture may 
be used, when stubble and stalk fields are exhausted. A good 
field of blue grass is excellent where the winters are open. Green 
rye pastures in the fall are excellent as succulent feed. Sheep 
should never be allowed to lose in weight. A good test can be 
made by frequent examination of the bones along the back or 
loin. Cornstalks, straws, and the legume hays form a good winter 
feed. Cow-pea, clover, and alfalfa are good and may be used 
as the sole feed until a short time before lambing. Wheat and 
oat straw are better than barley and rye straw. Timothy hay is 
not recommended. Only silage from good, mature corn should 
be fed. It must never be frozen, moldy, or spoilt. Not more than 
three pounds of this should be fed daily. One-fourth to one- 
half pound of cottonseed meal may be given daily, if pasture is 
soft and green. 

Ewes should have plenty of exercise in the winter, but they 
should: never be allowed to be chased by dogs. Their fleece must 
never be allowed to become rain soaked; if they do, pneumonia 
may result. Dry snow is not harmful, as they easily shake it off. 

The lambing season is the harvest time for the shepherd, 
and contant care is demanded at this time. Much of his profits 
depend on the number and condition of the young lambs. In 
cold weather, the lambs must often be wrapped in hot blankets. 
Milk should be given freely. The lamb should be returned to 
its mother as soon as possible to keep her from disowning it. 

The lambs should be docked when ten to fourteen days old. 
This adds much to the cleanliness and appearance of the sheep. 
It also raises its selling price on the market. Ewes should be 
watched to see that they are giving sufficient milk for their young. 

Late spring or early summer is the best shearing time, 
though in some localities, sheep are sheared twice a year—both 
spring and fall. It should be done on a warm day, but before ~ 


hot weather begins. Hand shears were formerly used but now — 


hand power machines are coming into general use. They are 
more rapid, the ewes are injured less, and smoother, neater work 
is done than by the hand shears. Shortly after being shorn, the 
sheep should be dipped to free them from ticks, lice, and other 
. skin diseases. The dipping should be done in the morning so the 
sheep will be dry by night. 

If the lambs are to be sold at three to five months of age, 
they should run with their mother up to that time. 


SECOND QUARTER 91 


Stomach worms are one of the greatest menaces to the sheep 
raiser. These live in the fourth stomach. On farms where sheep 
. have not been previously, they are not likely to prove dangerous 
until the second or third year. 

Lambs should be ready for the market from three to five 
months of age. The sooner they can be marketed the better 
because the younger they are the cheaper they can be made gain. 
Young lambs should be taught to eat while young. A trough 
for grain and a rack for hay should be made accessible to the 
lambs. The food should be fresh, clean, and free from mold. 
When ten to sixteen days old, the lambs should begin to nibble at 
the grain. 

Pea green alfalfa is one of the best early feeds. This should 
be of the second or third cutting. Sweet wheat brand is also 
good. Linseed meal is also good mixed with bran. Until 
the lambs are five or six weeks old, all their feed should be 
crushed, or coarse ground oil meal is usually relished, too. Clean- 
liness is one of the most necessary things in feeding young lambs. 
Any feed left uneaten should be removed and the trough occa- 
sionally scrubbed with lime water. 

Raising lambs on pasture alone cannot be recommended 
usually. Unless the lambs have had some grain, they are usually 
very likely to suffer from stemach worms. They also make 
smaller gains in hot weather, and unless they have learned to 
eat, when the ewe’s milk begins to be scanty, the young lambs 
will suffer accordingly. 

The dry lot method has been tried by some breeders to 
escape stomach worms. By this plan, the sheep do not leave the 
lot until they are weaned, then they are put on clean, fresh pasture. 

The practice of grazing sheep in forage crops until the 
lambs are marketed, is increasing, especially in sections where 
land is high and where stomach worms are troublesome. Wheat 
or rye, fall sown, are first used. Spring sown oats and peas are 
next used. Later the first ground is plowed and sown in cereal 
or to rape or soy beans for later use. This plan requires much 
more work, but produces the greater amount of feed from the 
same ground as well as minimizes the danger from worms. 

In 1915 at the University of Illinois, three lots of ewes 
and lambs were reared under the three conditions of Dry Lot, 
Pasture with Grain, and Forage Feeding. The average weight 
from the dry lot method was 66.1 pounds with a ratio of net 
returns at 100 per cent. The pasture with grain fed lot averaged 
64.4 pounds, with a ratio of net retutns at 131.8 per cent. The 
forage lot averaged in weight 72.4 pounds, with net returns of 
195.7 per cent. 


A es 


92 SECOND QUARTER 


WATER SUPPLY 


The Drinking Water in the School and Homes 


One of the most important questions to be decided upon 
around a home is the question of water supply. There are two 
general sources of water supply—surface waters and underground 
waters. 

Surface waters may be divided into ponds and flowing 
streams. The use of these is largely confined to stock and 
laundry purposes. The water in flowing streams has it origin 
as all surface water in rainfall. If the source is drainage, it is 
perhaps too badly contaminated for domestic purposes. 

The water flowing over surface of the soil will carry along 
with it in solution many impurities and soluble minerals from 
barn manure which renders its use distasteful. Surface water 
also comes in contact with many human wastes that renders its 
use dangerous. During some seasons of the year there is also 
much decaying vegetable matter that will render surface water 
dangerous. However, if such water flows for some distance 
through a stream of rocky or gravel sides, it may be purified 
till it is safe. The action of sun and air in purifying water is 
also remarkable. A stream that is fed by underground tile drains 
is more apt to be safe, since to reach the tile the water has filtered 
through several feet of ground. The nature of the soil will have 
much to do with the purification that has taken place. But tile- 
fed streams can usually be counted upon only a small portion of 
the year, since, during the dry months, they dry up. 

In some localities ponds are depended upon to furnish water 
during the summer months for stock. In some cases, they are 
often relied upon for house use. Some ponds are formed by 
natural depression, others by a natural draw, and others have 
been scooped out to the depth of two to four feet. They are 
usually found where the soil is a heavy clay, thus holding the 
water till it is evaporated or used out. As long as it rains fre- 
quently and is cool, these ponds form a very good source of water 
supply for stock, but during the hot months when the water is 
low, and becomes stale, many forms of plant life develop which 
render the water unfit for animals of any kind. 

Among underground waters, springs form one of the most 
satisfactory forms for farm use. Springs, so called, are of many 
kinds, but the term spring can really be applied only to that de- 
cided stream of water. which emerges from the ground with a 
more or less constant flow. : 

Sometimes seepage veins are called streams, but these are 
really wet weather streams, and are dry most of the year. They 
are really the result of water running from a water-bearing 


SECOND QUARTER 93 


stratum over a somewhat large area. The flow from these is 
very irregular. At times is is well defined and strong, at others 
it may spread over a large area and result in a swampy condi- 
tion. Again it may cease, and then break out in some other 
location. The nature of the waters of these springs varies with 
the kind of soil through which they flow. a is usually hard 
and contains iron. 

An artesian spring is rarer and far, far more valuable than 
the former type. Its waters bubble up ‘out of the earth, and if 
confined in a pipe, may rise to some height. As a general rule, 
the water of these springs is pure and very cold. If contami- 
nated it is usually from the surface water. If it is contaminated 
it will become disturbed and show turbidity after heavy rains. 

Springs whose waters are intended for human use, should 
be protected from surface wash, leaves, and other foreign ma- 
terial. 

But the greater part of our water is secured from wells. 
As a rule, the water is pure. There are three types of wells— 
each of which will be discussed at some length. These are dug, 
driven and drilled wells. 

But before continuing the discussion of wells, it may be of 
some use if one would consider for a minute the amount of water 
used around the home in one day. There is but one thing more 
necessary to man’s existence and that is air. Until one is deprived 
of plenty of pure, clean water, he can never realize what a 
Heaven-sent gift it is. Civilization never reaches its greatest 
development in places where there is not an abundance of water. 
A great déal-of our commercial, industrial, agricultural, educa- 
tional, and civil life depends upon our water supply. If at first 
this seems an exaggeration, a moment’s consideration will bear 
out the truth of the statement. 

In planning on the water supply around the farm, home, or 
school, there should be a very definite idea as to what the demand 
will be. On the average a cow will require ten gallons per day, 
a horse twelve, a hog two, and a sheep one. 

If a house has bathroom equipment, each person in the 
house will use on the average of twenty gallons per day, but if 
no such equipment is provided, eight to twelve gallons will prove 
to be a fair average. This, of course, includes water used for 
laundry purposes. 

Many farm homes have, in addition to wells, cisterns, These 
are of great use to the farm wife, especially if the well water is 
hard, but are scarcely a safe or satisfactory source of drinking 
water, since the water is apt to have a characteristic color and 
odor. However, if they must be depended upon, careful construc- 
tion and cleanliness may do much to remove these objections. 


94 SECOND QUARTER 


If the house roof is slate, tile or similar material, and is allowed 
to wash well before the rain water is turned into the cistern, 
the water may be kept in good condition. Adequate filters also 
should be provided. Cisterns are practical for home use, but are 
scarcely to-be recommended for schoolhouses. 

Like the school building themselves during the last ten years, 
the school water supply has undergone many changes. The old- 
time well and moss-grown bucket are a thing of the past. Wells 
of various types with concrete curbs and modern pumps have 
taken their place. 

Children drink a great deal of water, and it should be pure, 
clean and cold. 


Covered Receptacles; Drinking Cup and Drinking Fountain 


Covered receptacles. If it is not possible to have a supply of 
drinking water in the home or school, covered receptacles should 
be used to keep a temporary supply. The best receptacle is a 
white granite bucket with close fitting granite lid or the china 
water cooler with faucet. Individual drinking cups are a neces- 
sity, indeed in most places are now required by law. These vary 
from china, porcelain, or the collapsable drinking cup to various 
types of paper cups. These may be the round paraffined cup or 
the collapsable envelope cup. 

The drinking fountain is rapidly finding favor especially in 
large cities. It is impracticable unless attached to some large 
water system. They may-be the constant flowing type or the foot 
or hand operated sort. To gain the desired results from a drink- 
ing fountain it should be used properly. Only the lips should 
touch the water. Remember, it isn’t a bath tub, a dog fountain, 
or a wash tub. The hands, handkerchief, or no other: article 
should be placed near the water. Children should not be allowed 
to play around it, trying to stop the flow with their hands, etc. 


Wells; Kinds; Sources of Water in Each 


There are three general types of wells—dug, drilled, and 
driven. The former was the original type and in the older sec- 
tions of country is still the most common. This was true be- 
cause a farmer and his helpers could dig it without special tools 
or expensive equipment. However, these wells are only practical 
where a good supply of water is found with fifty feet of the 
ground. This is the usual maximum depth for a dug well. The 
hole may vary from four to eight feet in diameter. In order 
that the cleaning of the well later may be accomplished more 
easily, it is better not to have the diameter too small. It is also 
desirable to have the well large enough to store a considerable 
amount of water, since these shallow wells do not usually strike 


SECOND QUARTER 95 


a heavy flow of water. In many cases dug wells do not strike any 
definite vein of water, but depend upon seepage water, hence a 
large storage chamber is very necessary. Again, very strong 
veins are struck, and the well may fill very rapidly. In case a 
slow vein is struck, in order to get an adequate supply it is some- 
times necessary to dig until several such veins are encountered. 
A well may be walled up with brick or stone. It is done without 
mortar or cement. The top should be laid with cement mortar for 
at least eight feet below the surface. This prevents rats, mice, 
toads, and other vermin getting in and also shuts out surface 
wash. A concrete slab is the most desirable curb. This slab 
should be cemented down to the top of the well, and thus make 
the well proof against surface contamination. 

The water in dug wells always comes from gravels, sands, 
clays, glacial drift, and similar loose formations of soil. It is 
usually of a mineral nature because in its course through the 
ground, it dissolves many minerals. Iron is nearly always found, 
as is calcium and magnesium. Such are rarely objectionable. 

The drilled well is next in importance to the dug well, and 
in the newer regions is found very largely. It is well suited to 
all parts of the country, since it may be sunk in rocks of all 
kinds, and to the depth of thousands of feet if necessary. How- 
ever, the average well is not over three hundred feet deep, 
An iron casing, five to eight inches in diameter, is usually used, 
but after rock is struck this casing is continued but a few feet 
further. The question of surface pollution is not a serious one 
with a drilled well, provided the top of the casing is properly 
protected. The water of drilled wells comes from the same 
sources as that of dug wells, as well as any of the rock forma- 
tions, which usually furnish a supply of water. Sandstone and 
limestone furnish by far the greater part of our water supply. 
Sandstone is the chief of all rock formations as a water bearer. 
It gives up its water readily, and the water as a rule is_ not 
highly charged with minerals. The water from limestone is 
usually hard, but does not usually contain many other minerals. 
The water from limestone is much more apt to be impure than 
that from sandstone. 

In concluding the subject of drilled wells, it may be well 
to point out a few of its drawbacks. It is usually expensive to 
drill, and it has little storage capacity, hence unless a strong vein 
is struck, is apt to be unreliable, the water stands in the pipes, 
hence is apt to have an iron taste. The pipes rust and corrode. 
Yet it is by far the most satisfactory of all wells. It is adapted 
to all regions, it may go ten feet or several thousand, it may 
be deepened at little expense, it can be located anywhere, and 
is little influenced by long, dry seasons. 


96 SECOND QUARTER 


Driven wells are usually found in regions where water is 
found within 50 or 75 feet of the surface. It is not suitable 
for regions where stones and such are apt to be encountered. 
In driving a well, a pipe of one and one-half inches in diameter 
is fitted with a special drive point. This is driven down until 
a strong flow of water is encountered. If the water is close to 
the surface, a common pitcher pump may be used, but if more 
than thirty feet below the surface, a three-inch pipe is used. 

The water of such wells is ‘usually_ pure, and is found in 
sands and_gravels. There is ‘no danger of surface seepage, and 
as sand is a good filter, the water is “well washed before it goes 
into the pipes. 

Artesian wells need scarcely to be mentioned here, since 
they are found only in limited areas. Sands and sandstones or 
glacial materials furnish many flowing wells. They are rarely 
found in limestone regions. 

Experiment to show source of water in a shallow well, m 
deep, in drilled wells. A shallow well is a dug well ten to 
twenty feet deep and depends upon surface water for its supply. 
A liberal quantity of salt springled upon the ground around the 
well will show the source of water supply by an increased 
amount of chlorine there will be in the water. 

Deep wells are of much the same sort as shallow wells, 
and may likewise be tested with salt or kerosene, but it must 
be kept in mind that a greater quantity is required, and a longer 
time allowed for penetration. 

' Drilled wells are but estensions of driven wells. These 
may be extended a hundred feet or even much deeper if necessary. 
Tests for the source of water in driven wells may be made with 
paraffin oil or a strong alkaline solution of fluorescin. 

Use of analine dyes also is recommended, as is the use of the 
bacillus prodigiosus, the latter being employed only oy one skilled 
in its culture and use. 


Impurities in Water 


Impurities in water may be of several kinds. Most well 
waters contain minerals. If these are from 20 to 100 grains per 
gallon we speak of the water as good, but if over 100 we call 
it “hard.” This may become so great it is unfit for use. Water 
containing over 100 gr. of such salts per gal. as magnesium 
sudphate or sodium phosphate are known as mineral waters and 
taken for their medicinal effects. 

Vegetable and mineral matter may cause impurities in water. 
Such contaminated water is liable to have a brownish color 
unpleasant odor, or ‘oft’ taste 


SECOND QUARTER 97 


Animal pollution is very objectionable and causes much im- 
pure water. If from human excrement such pollution is 
especially dangerous. 


Es we How to Secure Pure Water 


The dug well should always be placed at the highest point 
of the surrounding ground. This is so that the surface wash 
will be away from rather than toward the well. The distance 
from cess pools, barns, outhouses, and such must vary with 
the nature of the soil. From fifty to one hundred feet is safe 
in heavy clay soil, sandy or loam soil, where seepage is very 
slow. This is especially true if the well is deep, and has a 
distinct vein, of heavy flow, and seepage water does not supply 
the source. If the well is shallow, and seepage water is the 
source, especially if the soil is of a loose, open nature, two 
hundred or even three hundred feet would be a far safer dis- 
tance for the location of all objectionable out buildings. 

Impure water is one of the many causes of sickness. If 
an epidemic of fever or such disease breaks out, the source of 
the water supply is at once looked into. In many cases it will 
be found to be contaminated. 

Until Chicago and St. Louis looked into the question of the 
disposal of their sewage and the source of their water supply, 
frequent epidemics broke out, taking a great toll of life. Mil- 
lions were spent by each city in assuring and uncontaminated 
water source. In St. Louis, the source is the Mississippi River. 
Great intake towers were built, and enormous settling basins 
constructed. The result is water that is clear and clean. 
Indianapolis faced the same question. The source of the water 
supply for this city was the White River, and filter beds were 
built to purify these waters. Chicago turned her sewage into 
the Illinois River, and thus prevented the contamination of the 
lake water, her source of water supply. 

Throughout the length and breadth of our land today, 
people are awakening to the dangers of contaminated water. 


Sewage Disposal 


Sewage disposal around a farm is as important as anywhere 
else. Sewage consists of several classes. The least dangerous 
is the drains from bath tubs, wash basins, floor drains, etc. Human 
excrements on the other hand are rich in organic substances as 
are dairy wastes. These should be so treated as to insure rapid 
mineralization of the organic residues. 

, Septic tanks are one means of securing sanitation around 
a farm. 


. 


pon 5 


98 SECOND QUARTER 


The activated Sludge method offers to the farmer a means of 
regaining the plant food from sewage. This circulates the 
sewage for several hours in circular tanks and the aerobic 
bacteria added under compressed air. The brown jelly-like 
mass which settles down is ground after drying and is rich as 
a fertilizer. No offensive odors arise. It is an ideal means of 
disposing of sewage but is expensive. All outbuildings should be 
kept as clean as possible, quantities of lime being used on 
refuse, much of which should be buried if no other means of 
disposal is at hand. 


The Need of Water in the Human Body, Amount to Drink 


One of the greatest uses of water in the human body is that 
it affords a medium for the solution of foods after and during 
digestion. Most of our foods contain water, fruit and milk 
containing the most. However, food does not supply as much 
as the body needs, hence we should drink plenty of pure water. 

The quantity depends on the person, occupation, season of 
year, food, and general health. Naturally, a man working out 
in the heat in summer would need a great deal more than a 
student in the winter time. Water helps to carry off the wastes 
of the body as sweat or through the kidneys. It also serves to 
regulate the temperature of the body. Indeed it has been called 
the safety valve of the human boiler. 

No definite amount can be set as the amount each person 
should drink daily. It has been declared unsafe to drink too 
much with our meals. The limit being drank two glasses. However 
it is safe to say that enough is not drunk between meals by the 
average person. A glass just before going to bed, and one on 
arising is especially recommended. A person can do without 
food longer than he can without water. Men can live days if 
trapped in mines provided they have plenty of good water. 

Bathing | 

Not the least use of the human body for water is for bathing 
purposes. Some recommend cold baths in the morning others 
hot baths just before retiring. Again individual peculiarities 
must decide. If no after glow, but instead a feeling of de- 
pression follows a cold bath, they do more harm than good. A 
shower bath is the most sanitary. A daily tepid shower with 
a weekly hot scrub with soap will keep most of us fit, and with 
our bodies in a condition we need never be ashamed of. 


Forms of Water—As a Liquid—As a, Solid 
As we all know, water may assume one of the three forms— 
vapor, liquid, or solid. In the vapor state, we call it steam, in 
the liquid, water, and in the solid, ice. 


a 


SECOND QUARTER 99 


Water boils at the temperature of 100° Centigrade and steam 
is formed. If a glass of cold water is held in the steam arising 
from a boiling kettle, the steam is condensed, and gathers on 
the glass in the form of drops of water. Therefore, to condense 
steam, its temperature must be lowered. This same water may 
be converted into a solid by still further lowering its temperature 
to 1° Centigrade or 32° F., known as the freezing point. 

Notre.—Teacher should have students point out various ways 
these three forms of water are met with in their daily life, and 
the various uses of each. 

We are apt to think of steam as the white spray like foam 
rising from boiling liquids. This is not steam. Itis a vapor. The 
steam is an invisible elastic fluid generated from water by the 
applcation of heat. If we look very closely at the mouth of a 
boiling teakettle, we see nothing. About an inch beyond, we see 
what is commonly called steam. This is really the vapor caused 
by the condensation of steam. Anything that lowers the temper- 
ature of steam sufficiently causes it to vaporize, and as soon as 
vaporization begins evaporation takes place. 

This is shown by holding a cold object in a spray of vapor. 


Cooling Effects of Evaporation; Artificial Ice 


One of the simplest experiments to show the cooling effects 
of evaporation, we have all unconsciously tried many times. This 
is to become so warm that we perspire. Then as the perspiration 
evaporates, our bodies are cooled. In order for a liquid to evap- 
orate, it must assume a temperature somewhat lower than its 
surroundings. 

To compare the value of liquids as cooling agents try this. 
Rub lightly the back of your hand with cold water. As it evap- 
orates note how cool it feels. Now take alcohol and do the same 
thing. Note how much cooler your hand is and how much more 
quickly it vanishes. Now do the same with ether. The ether 
evaporates almost instantly and gives a very cold feeling to 
the skin. 

This fact has been taken advantage of in our manufacture 
of artificial ice. As the ether or alcohol evaporates from our 
hand it absorbs heat hence cools our hand. In the same way, 
ammonia gas liquified is used to freeze ice. The gas is liquified 
under pressure, run through pipes surrounding tanks of brine. 
In this brine, tanks filled with distilled water are placed. This 
in from 36-48 hours is frozen as solid ice, and as such we use it 
in our ice chests, to make ice cream, etc. Made from distilled 
_ water as it is it is much purer than pond ice. 


100 SECOND QUARTER 


Regulation of Heat in the Human Body 


The heat of the human body is regulated by the evaporation 
of perspiration. When we become too warm, instead of our 
temeprature rising, the sweat valves open, perspiration is poured 
out, and by its evaporation the body is cooled. In the case of 
the dog, which never sweats, the cooling is done by evaporation 
on its tongue. When the dog becomes too hot, he pants—that is— 
he thrusts out his tongue, and his body heat is cooled by the 
evaporation from its surface. ; 


Heat of Vaporization; How a Steam Radiator is Heated 


The heat of vaporization depends upon the temperature of 
the air into which steam is forced. Any temperature unless the 
air has reached the point of saturation lower than that of the 
steam will cause vaporization. As to the amount of heat neces- 
sary to raise any liquid into a vapor depends on the liquid. This 
for any particular substance is called its heat of vaporization and 
means the amount of heat required to change 1 gram of the liquid 
into vapor without changing its temperature. In the case of 
water it is found that 539 calories are required to so change 
1 gram. The heat of vaporization of water is therefore 539 
calories per gram. | : 

In a steam radiator the hot steam is forced from the boiler 
through the pipes into the radiator. This being cooler than the 
steam causes the steam to vaporize, thus to give up some of its 
heat. This heat warms the radiator, and is the reason that when 
the steam is first turned into the cold pipes, they are apt to 
drip water. 


Water Vapor in the Air; Sources: Rain 


At any temperature a certain amount of water vapor can exist 
in the air. The cooler the air, the less vapor it can contain, hence 
our heavy dews at night. The warm moist air of the day when 
cooled at night cannot hold so much moisture and gives it up at 
night in the, form of dew. Fog or mist is merely dew collected 
on soot or dust particles. Frost is produced if the temperature 
of the atmosphere reaches the freezing point before saturation 
occurs. | 

Warm air may contain much more moisture than cold air yet 
seems dry because it is not near the saturation point. A measure 
to determine the moisture in the air is called a Hygrometry. 

Moisture in the air comes in the main from large bodies of 
water. In general its comes from any exposed surface of water. 
This is equalized by rains and dews. The sun heats the surface 
of the water, and thus hastens the process of evaporation. This 


SECOND QUARTER » $201 


is also hastened by high winds. In the first case the sun by its 
heat causes molecules of water to escape from the surface of the 
water, the wind prevents their return. 

Clouds are caused by the condensation of vapor in the upper 
strata of the atmosphere. As the heated air rises moist but not 
at the saturation point, it cools and expands and the moisture 
condenses to a mist or cloud when it has reached such a high 
altitude that it reaches the saturation point. This is the forma- 
tion of our rain clouds. The rain descending makes up for the 
loss of the water in the streams and oceans. 


102 THIRD QUARTER 


THIRD QUARTER 


HEAT, AIR, LIGHT 
HEATING PLANTS OF THE HOME AND SCHOOL 


Air Currents in the Room, Sources of Heat 


There are various sorts of heating plants now in use in homes 
and schools. There are furnaces—hot air, steam, het water, or 
various types of stoves. These will all be discussed in following 
topics. 

How well a room is heated, depends upon the air currents in 
a room. For this reason, the hot air furnace with its cold air 
pipe is usually a satisfactory means. In a way, we can speak 
of air currents being the source of our heat. To air currents is 
due the supply of oxygen which causes the fuel to burn, and to 
them likewise is due the distribution of the heat produced by the 
combustion of the fuel. Open a window on a cold day, and note 
the cold air that rushes in at the bottom and the warm air that 
goes out at the top. This shows. the direction of air currents 
in aroom. In general, it may be said that in any room the rising 
currents of air are the warm ones, and the falling, the cold ones. 
So much depends upon the ventilation, and heating of the room, 
and other features, that no specific discussion is possible for 
rooms in general. 


Parts of Jacketed Stove; Furnace; Steam Heater; Registers; 
Radiators 


The open fire place is at once the best and the most inex- 
pensive way of heating a room. It is the best way because it 
furnishes not only heat but also ventilation. In the early days 
this was the common means of heating schoolhouses, but it was 
wasteful of fuel and required much care. But for these reasons 
it has almost vanished from homes and schoolhouses. But of 
1,296 rural schools reporting to the United States Bureau of 
Education from nineteen States, but one reported an open fire- 
place as a means of heating. However, the open fireplace as a 
means of heating a room has many advantages. It is cheery; it 
furnishes a place to dry damp clothing. It creates a circulation 
of air, and is an excellent means of ventilation. 


nee a 


THIRD QUARTER 103 


About one-half of the small town and rural schools are still 
heated by the box stove, usually placed in the center of the room. 
This is one of the worst possible means of heating, for in severe 
weather, those who sit near the stove are much too warm, while 
those in the far parts of the room are cold. Some relief may be 
obtained by keeping a pan of water on top of the stove. This 
tends to add moisture to the air. This means of heating school- 
rooms should cease, as there are many better means available now. 

The jacketed stove is a step upward in the heating line. Any 
ordinary stove may be changed into a jacketed stove at very little 
expense. To do this the stove must be moved to one corner of 
the room, inclosing it all except the door, with a sheet iron casing, 
set six or eight inches from the stove. This space must be con- 
nected with the outside air by means of a carefully constructed 
fresh air duct. The jacket must fit closely to the floor and around 
the stove door, and extend above the top of the stove several 
inches. 

As the stove heats the air it will become warm and 
lighter, and rise rapidly over the room. ‘Then the fresh air 
from the outside rushes in and takes its place. A little study 
of the various types of jacketed stoves now on the market will 
show their advantages over the old-time box stove. Not only 
is the warm air more evenly distributed by this means, but also 
a supply of clean, pure air is furnished. However, their effect- 
iveness as ventilators vary with the weather—being much more 
effective in severe than in mild weather. They are expensive to 
begin with but are to be recommended in all schools where 
furnace heat-is not possible. They are far more common in the 
North than in the South. About one-third of our rural schools 
are supplied with them. 

- The hot air furnace is on the same principle as the jacketed 
stove. However, it has these advantages. It is in the basement, 
' will heat a greater number of rooms, and is much cleaner than 
any type of stove. 

The hot air furnace is a great aid in securing ventilation in 
cold weather. It is the cheapest of all central methods of heating 
to install. It requires less skill to manage than either a hot water 
or steam furnace. ° It is better suited to mild weather, where a 
little heat is needed during the morning and none at mid-day. 
It requires no attention when not in use, as there are no boilers or 
pipes to drain. One can add moisture to the air very easily by 
keeping the water pans of the furnace filled. 

However, there are various disadvantages that may arise 
from the use of a hot air furnace. Most of these are caused by 
the furnace not being properly installed or properly tended. 


104 THIRD QUARTER 


Low pressure steam as a means of heating large school 
buildings has come into general use in very cold climates in the 
past decade. This means has many advantages in heating large 
rooms and buildings, but in general is not practicable in the one 
room schoolhouse. The boiler room may be in a separate building 
and the one set of boilers may be used to heat several buildings. 
The heat furnished is a comparatively steady heat, and may either 
be furnished direct to radiators in the room, or fresh air may be 
warmed and then conducted to the rooms. In general, it is more 
economical than the hot air furnace, but it requires skilled engi- 
neers to operate the boilers successfully. It is not especially well 
suited to mild climates, as it heats up slowly and cools off also 
slowly. It requires constant care, even when not in use. Hammer- 
ing noises are often a nuisance in the schoolrooms, where radi- 
ators are used, and the danger of breaks and leakage is great. 
Steam heating apparatus requires more care than almost any 
other sort, unless itis hot water. The repairs on it are usually — 
expensive, and there is more or less danger attached to its use, 
owing to the confined steam. 

The systems of hot water heating correspond in many ways © 
to steam. They are better suited, however, to mild climates since » 
the water need not be heated to such a degree to start circulation: 
as the steam system requires. 

Registers are used with hot air furnaces, and are merely the 
opening of the pipe which conducts the hot air from the furnace | 
into any room. Sometimes they are set in the floor, again they — 
may be placed in the wall. They are often of wood formed into 
a sort of grating. Those in the wall ars usually of metal, and 
provided with a sort of damper which may be opened or closed 
at will. 

Radiators are the series st coils or pipes placed in a room 
for heating it when steam or hot water is the means used. 


Heat of Vaporization 


We have seen that a liquid does not need to boil in order to 
vaporize. The boiling point of water is 100° C. or 212° F. at 
ocean level, but when pressure is removed it boils at less. Water 
in Denver boils at 95° C., and on Mt. Blanc at 84° C. But water 
will vaporize at any temperature. The lower the temperature 
the slower will be the vaporization. Even ice and snow vaporize 
before they melt. We can prove this by laying a square cut bock 
out in freezing weather. After a few days,, even though freezing 
temperature has been maintained it will be found to have lost its 
sharp corners and edges. This is the result of vaporization. No 
definite temperature can be set as the heat of vaporization. 


THIRD QUARTER 105 


Experiments to Show Convection Currents 


We all know that air when heated becomes lighter. For this 
reason the temperature of any room if taken at both ceiling and 
floor will be found to be much warmer at the top than at the 
bottom of the room. Since it is difficult if not impossible to see 
the heat waves radiating and rising from the heated stove, put a 
shallow pan of water on the top of the stove. As it begins to boil, 
notice how the steam rises, often to some distance above the stove 
before it begins to disperse throughout the air. The hotter the 
steam and the denser it is, the higher it will rise before spreading 
out. As long as it is much hotter than the surrounding air, just 
so long will it continue to rise. 

Or if one wishes to note how cold air quickly settles down, 
let him some cold day open a window both at the top and at the 
bottom, when the room is very warm. If the hand is held at 
the top of the opened window, he can feel the warm air rushing 
out, while the fact that one’s feet soon become thoroughly chilled, 
‘proves that the cold air is rushing in and forcing upward the 
warm, light air. 


Convection Currents in Chimneys; Convection Currents and 
Wind Convection in the Hot Air Furnace 


Heat may be desiminated in three ways—by conduction, con- 
vection, and radiation. When we put a metal spoon in a kettle of 
boiling jelly, the handle becomes hot. This is heating by conduc- 
tion. When we set a pan of water on the stove it heats, this is 
by convection. When we stand before a fireplace, we are warmed 
by radiation, or radiant heat. 

Hot air and hot water heating are both applications of the 
convection principle of heating. 

Hot air heating is quite common in small buildings. It con- 
‘sists of an air chamber above the fire box. As the air is warmed, 
convection currents are caused in the various pipes leading from 
the air chamber to the different rooms. As the air is cooled it 
is returned to the air chamber by the cold air pipe. In this it 
is also mixed with fresh outside air. If no cold air pipe is em- 
ployed a great deal of the hot air will be carried out of the chim- 
ney and thus its heat lost. Unless the damper is closed after 
the fire is started, a great deal of heat will escape up the chimney 
anyway. This is also caused by convection currents. 


Fuel—Kinds 


Fuels are substances used to produce heat. To be a satis- 
factory fuel a substance must unite under proper conditions 
readily with oxygen. Hence the compounds of carbon—gases, 


x - 
, 


106 THIRD QUARTER 


liquids, or solids—make the best fuel. There are two general 
classes of fuel—those we can term pure, or nearly pure, and 
the impure. The latter class are solids and include soft coal, 
wood, and peat. The pure, or nearly pure class includes gases, 
liquids and solids. The solids are anthracite or hard coal, coke, 
and charcoal. The gases are hydrogen, carbon, and hydro- 
carbons. The liquids are alcohols and dydrocarbons. 

Wood was probably the first fuel used by man. The use of 
soft coal was first used during the 15th century while gas and 
hard coal did not come into use till the beginning of the 19th. 
Hydrocarbons as gasoline and kerosene and certain artificial 
gases were not used as fuel till the middle of the 19th century 
while the use of alcohol is now being developed. Natural gas is 
used largely in some localities for lighting and heating purposes. 
Petroleum is a dark oily liquid obtained from oil wells. It is 
a hydrocarbon, and is refined before using in most ways. 


The Process of Burning 


Burning is such a common sight, that it no longer causes 
us any surprise, yet it really is a chemical process where definite 
things occur ending in definite results. Suppose we put a lump 
of coal on the fire. The hot coals heat up the coal until it 
reaches the burning or combustion point. Then the chemical 
action begins. The carben in the coal unites with the oxygen 
in the air. The coal is consumed, reduced to ashes, heat is — 
released, and carbondioxide results. By the action of the heat, 
the coal has been reduced to its elements, and energy in the 
form of heat has been released. 


Radiant Heat 


It is a well known fact of physics that all objects give off 
heat. Even cold objects give off heat even though in a very 
slight degree. If an object gives off more heat than it receives 
or takes back, its temperature is lowered and it grows cold, but 
if it receives more than it gives off, it becomes hot. We often 
speak of the radiant heat of the sun, but the radinat heat of 
any article is just as much a fact as that of the sun except in 
a much less degree. It is owing to the principle of radiant 
heat that we are able to cook by means of heat. deat 


The Fireless Cooker 


The fireless cooker is a good example of radiant heat, being 
turned back upon itself, and thus used again. The article to 
be cooked is heated to the desired temperature, then put in the 
fireless cooker, where the cooking is finished. The principle is 
this: Surrounding the vessel is a layer of some non-conductive 


/ 


THIRD QUARTER 107 


material, as cork or asbestos. When the radiant heat of the 
vessel containing the food comes in conduct with this non- 
conductor, the heat is turned back to the vessel, and the cooking 
temperature is maintained. 


The Refrigerator 


The refrigerator is built upon much the same principle as 
the fireless cooker, except in this case, heat is to be kept out, 
and cold kept in. This is done by the same means—the use of 
a non-conducting material. The better the refrigerator, the 
lower will be the temperature maintained. | 

The thermos bottle which is now found in most homes, is 
constructed on an entirely different principle. It is based on 
the fact that heat or cold must have some conducting medium, 
either of material or air. To prevent this, the thermos bottle 
is really made of two bottles, one hanging inside but not touch- 
ing the other. The temperature of the inner bottle cannot pass 
to the outer bottle because of the vacuum which has been made 
between the two bottles. The lining of the outer bottle is 
mirror-like, and this reflects the heat or cold back to the orig- 
inal bottle, thus maintaining a low temperature or high tem- 
perature, as the case may be. 


The Ice Cream Freezer 


The ice cream freezer is built upon the principle that by 
taking heat away from a substance, the temperature of the 
substance may be lowered to the freezing point. The heat from 
the mixture is radiated more rapidly than it is taken back, 
hence the result is a freezing temperature. 

This discussion of heat and heating can be made but little 
more than suggestive here. If possible, the teacher should have 
the class perform experiments to show conduction, convection, 
and radiation. A good experiment to show convection may be 
performed by having a bottle of concentrated ammonia and 
another of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Hold them close 
together, uncork both bottles, and when the fumes from the 
open bottles arise, and mingles, a smoke will be formed, showing 
the path through the air, taken by the united fumes. 

Great care must be exercised in handling the acid, as its 
action on clothing or flesh is very disastrous. By performing 
this experiment near-the cold or hot air pipes of a hot air 
furnace, one may test whether the furnace is in good working 
order or not. 

Pupils should be encouraged to read further on the subject 
in elementary books on Physics and scientific papers. 


108 THIRD QUARTER 


Measuring Temperature, the Thermometer 


The temperature of ariy article is the amount of measureable 
heat it contains: The means of measuring this heat is the ther- 
mometer, phrometer or calorimeter. 

The termometer is used for measuring heat in the air, 
water, etc. It consists of a tube with a capillary bore, and a 
bulb at the end which contains mercury or quicksilver. By 
the side of the tube is the scale, marked into degrees, where 
we may read the temperatures. To fill this bulb and then seal 
it so that all air is removed and excluded requires exact work. 

There are three methods of graduating the thermometer, 
Fahrenheit’s, Centigrade, or Reaumur’s. The former is in general 
use in the United States, the second in France, and in most 
scientific work, and the later in Germany. 


Oxidation 


Oxidation is a chemical act. Rust on iron is the result of 
oxidation. The oxygen of the air unites with the iron and ~ 
forms oxide of iron (rust). The green tinge we see on copper. 
exposed to the air is oxide of copper or verdigris. The same 
sort of chemical process takes place when coal is heated to a 
given temperature. It then unites with the oxygen in the air 
and forms certain gases. What these gases are depend upon the 
chemical composition of the coal used. We all know how little » 
dirt or smoke there is in a good grade of hard coal. | 

Light carbureted hydrogen, heavy carbureted hydrogen, 
carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide, etc., are all produced when 
coal is burned. These uniting with oxygen of the air, pro- 
duce heat. 


_ Conductors of Heat 

By conduction we mean the transmission of heat, electricity 
or the like by means of a substance or body capable of readily 
transmitting such forces. Heat, we speak of, as being con- 
ducted, given off by radiation, or transmitted by convection. 
A very common example of conduction of heat is that shown 
by a spoon left in boiling liquid. While the bowl of the spoon 
alone may be immersed, the handle will soon be so hot it can 
not be touched by the bare hand. The conductivity of various 
substances differs greatly. Wood is a very poor conductor, 
hence wooden handles are used on many kitchen utensils. Tron 
and steel are excellent conductors, while aluminum is poor. 
Some substances may be a good conductor of heat, but a poor 
conductor of electricity, as rubber, and vice versa. Some sub- 
stances are such poor conductors, they are insulators, or non- 
conductors. 


ye 


THIRD QUARTER 109 


Asbestos is a non-conductor of heat, while rubber is a non- 
conductor of electricity. 

Most metals are good conductors. While earth, sawdust, 
ashes, stone, glass, chalk, are poor. Silver is one of the best 
conductors. Ranking it 100%, copper is 74, gold 53, iron 12, 
lead 9, bismuth 2. 


x ATR 
What Air is; Different Gases in Air; Proportion of Each 


Air consists of a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in a prac- 
tica onstant ratio, together with a small amount of other 
gases, and with a very variable amount of aqueous vapor.*~It 
was not until the middle of the last century that Prestley 
discovered that air was a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. The 
proportion by volume is 21 of oxygen to 79 of nitrogen, and 
by weight 23 of oxygen to 77 of nitrogen. The other constitu- 
ents of air are carbonic acid, which occupies  three-ten- 
thousandths by volume, traces of ammonia, ozone, and argon, 
an ai recently discovered. Jemepecregeeae ns (7) 

Oxygen is the active s vitalizing principle in air, that which 
makes human life possible. The proportions of oxygen and 
nitrogen vary but little whatever the altitude, being practi- 
cally the same on mountains as at sea level. The difference in 
mountain air is due to its density and temperature. 

The nitrogen in the air represents the negative element, 
which lessens the activity, and energy developed by the com- 
bustion of the oxygen. In this way it tends to prolong life, 
because in pure oxygen life would be used up too rapidly. 
Nitrogen is less dense than oxygen, hence renders the air better 
suited to carry sound and sight. 

Dust is another constituent of air which is found univer- 
sally, though the particles are less numerous over the ocean and 
over mountains at high altitudes. 


Experiment to Show that Air has Weight and Pressure 


We are very apt to think of air as having no weight, there- 
fore it will surprise us to learn how much air really weighs. It 
takes but 12 cubic feet of air to weigh a pound. At this rate a 
single large room will contain more air than a man can lift. The 
air in a room 60-30-15, the size of many church auditoriums, will 
weigh more than a ton. 

To prove that air has weight, take an electric light bulb, 
weight it on a pair of delicate scales, then puncture the glass with 
a blowpipe and weigh again. It will be found to have gained 
slightly in weight after the air was allowed to enter. Or take a 


‘y 


110 THIRD QUARTER 


light rubber membrane and stretch it over the top of an open jar. 
If the air is exhausted from the jar, the rubber membrane will 
break, crushed in by the weight of air pressing on it from above. 
The last experiment shows both that air has weight and pressure. 
Or take a light weight tin can. Close it completely and exhaust 
the air from it. The pressure of the outside air will cause it 
to collapse. 


Measuring Pressure, The Barometer 


Galileo, an Italian nobleman, who lived 1564-1642 was the 
first who attempted to measure air pressure. But he died before 
his experiments were successful. Torricelli his pupil, continued 
his experiments, and made our first barometer, or measure for air 
pressure. He took a tube about 4 feet long sealed at one end, com- 
pletely filled it with mercury. This he closed with his finger, and 
put the open end, on which his finger rested, in a dish of mercury. 
When the finger is removed the mercury will fall in the tube leav- 
_ ing a vacuum in the closed end. It will fall until it stands be- 
tween 29 and 30 inches above the mercury in the dish. When 
he placed the dish of mercury under glass and exhausted the air 
from above the dish, the mercury fell in the tube, when the air 
was admitted again the mercury rose, showing that the rise and 
fall of the mercury depended upon the pressure exerted by the 
air on the open mercury. By comparing the pressure or weight 
of the mercury with the height it remained in the tube, he 
demonstrated the fact that the pressure of the atmosphere is 
about fifteen pounds per square inch. 

Odr tid6dern barometer is nothing more or less than 
Torricelli’s tube, with a graduated scale at its side to show how 
the height of the mercury varies. This height varies from 73 to 
76.5 centimeters in localities which are about sea level. . 


Moisture or Water Vapor in the Air 


We all know that there is a certain amount of moisture in 
the air. When it is less than 40, we become uncomfortable, for 
the air dries out the moisture from our skin. When the humidity 
is more than 60, we are also uncomfortable, for the air does not 
evaporate enough, and we say the air has a hot sticky feel. Warm 
air has a greater capacity for moisture than cold air. Hence 
when cold air enters a furnace is warmed, the moisture has not 
changed, but as the air is warm, it takes up more moisture than 
it did before. Hence, in connection with our hot air furnaces, 
we should have some means of adding moisture to the air. 

This topic has already been discussed under Forms of Water 
in the Second Quarter. 


THIRD QUARTER 111i 


Air Pressure and Pumps—Other Work Done by Air, Vacuum 
Cleaner, Wind Mills 


Pumps depend on the suction of air for their operation. The 
air is drawn up through the pump proper by working the handle 
up and down. As the air is exhausted, the water from below is 
drawn up, and as long as the pumping is kept up, a steady flow 
is maintained. Chain pumps, bucket, and pitcher pumps, as well 
as piston, and all forms of suction pumps are constructed on the 
same principle. 


Vacuum Cleaners and Wind Mills 


There are so many kinds of vacuum cleaners now on the 
market it is impossible to describe them except in a general way. 
They are both electric and hand power. Both work on the same 
principle, however. A vacuum is created by means of a motor 
or bellows. Suction is produced strong enough to carry the dirt 
along with the air current. The dust is conducted through open- 
ings into boxes or tubes, or bags, from which it may be removed 
at the operators’ convenience. 

The chief use of wind mills now is in the operation of 
pumps. Wind is the motive power, and for this reason it is one 
of the most economical machines on the farm, but is of limited 
use. It should be found on all farms, since in cost it is in reach 
of every one. In construction it is too well known to need 
description. Since the wind is an uncertain element, sufficient 
water should be kept stored to last at least three days. Besides 
being used to pump water, the wind mill to a limited extent has 
been used to grind feed, and to run various machines. The 
wind mill requires little care aside from frequent oiling and 
tightening of the nuts. What is true of the average pump, holds 
good for pumps used in connection with wind mills. At present 
wind mills are mostly employed in pumping water for storage 
or irrigation. They are found in the greatest numbers in the 


middle United States and in Australia. There are more than a . 


million in the central part of the United States. 
A geared wheel, twenty feet in diameter, will furnish five 
horse power in an eighteen mile an hour wind. 


Air and Health—Dust in the Ai Air; Dead Dust; Living Dust; 
Disease Bacteria 

We must have good pure air in order to have good health. 

We have all seen dust in the air. Any afternoon when the 
sun is shining very brightly into a room in a single straight ray, 
we can see the dust particles. 

All dust may be divided into dead or living dust. The 
former is harmless or comparatively so, but the latter is not apt . 


112 “THIRD QUARTER 


to be. Dead dust consists of various things, usually bits of earth 
ground to a . powder, particles of clothing worn by friction into 
very tiny pieces, pollen from flowers, dandruff, innumerable 
things in fact. Aside from irritating the membrane of the respir- 
atory organs, dead dust is usually harmless. Among the live and 
therefore dangerous dust, we find the bacteria. Some bacteria as 
we know are harmless, hence should not be put in the dangerous 
class. These bacteria are the ones that give flavor to cheese, make 
vinegar, etc. When the bacteria are of the nature that cause food 
to rot, milk to sour, etc., they become harmful agents. But the 
most dangerous agents are those that cause human diseases. These 
are known as disease germs. Such diseases as typhoid fever, 
diphtheria, tuberculosis, and many others are the result of such 
bacteria. These germs are often dust borne and therefore all 
food intended for human consumption should be protected from 
the air. 

Bacteria are very tiny, some much tinier than others. If we 
would magnify the point of a very, very fine needle, and some 
bacteria that produce diseases, in the same proportion, we would 
find the needle to look like a large lead pencil, while the bacteria 
would seem to be very fine dots, much smaller than a very small 
period mark. If these bacteria were magnified still more we 
would find that those that cause typhoid fever looked like broken 
pieces of string beans. Those that cause boils were smaller and 
nearer round; those that produce tuberculosis looked like black 
marks, one crossing the other; those that cause the la grippe were 
much like the typhoid bacteria but much smaller. 

In 1882 Robert Koch invented gelatine and agar culture 
media whereby germs could be cultivated, separated, and studied 
under the microscope. 

The best way to destroy disease germs is by keeping things 
clean. Soap and hot water are the best possible disinfectants, as 
are sunlight and air. Heat, either dry or moist, is also a good 
means of disinfecting or sterilizing any article. Unslacked lime, 
carbolic acid, chloride of lime, sulphur, mercuric chloride, and 
formaldehyde are excellent disinfectants, among the chemicals. 


Ventilation of Home and School; How Secured 


The subject of ventilation is one that has received so much 
discussion during the last decade, that little need be said here. 
In houses supplied with a hot air furnace, the ventilation is to 
a great extent taken care of by the furnace. Some buildings 
are equipped with special ventilating systems, more or less per- 
fect. However, one need not resort to these, in order to have 
pure air. Windows opened at the top afford a simple means 
of ventilation. Bed room windows should remain open during the 


THIRD QUARTER 113 


entire year. Transoms are efficient means of securing good venti- 
lation. Recess periods and noon hour afford opportunities to 
ventilate schoolrooms. A teacher, however efficient, is not doing 
her full duty by her students who does not see that the air of 
the schoolroom is kept pure. If necessary to open windows for a 
few minutes during school hours, give the students a brisk bit of 
calisthenics. 


Source and Provision of Fresh Air in School. Relate to Convec- 
tion Current Under Heating 


One of the greatest problems architects have had to solve is 
the problem of supplying warm moist air to school children. 

During the months of the year that the climate permit the 
windows to be open, there is no problem, but with cold winds 
and inclement weather the problem is a real one. Most efficient 
methods take into consideration the heating plant for when a 
room is heated by a stove or furnace, convection currents are 
set up that cause the air to circulate. This by no means solves 
the problem. To make the system anyways near satisfactory the 
air that circulates must not be only warm, but fresh and moist. To 
secure these things an abundance of outside air must be assured, 
then some way provided to add moisture, for the outside air when 
heated has an added attraction for water, and will as we say 
“dry out” whatever it touches. Various forms of appliances have 
been contrived to prevent this. Any that is satisfactory provides 
for fresh air being brought in from the outside, carried over the 
furnace, and then moistened. Fans, in some systems, are used 
to suck the foul air out of rooms. This creates a vacuum, which 
fresh air rushes in to fill. The more satisfactory fan system is 
the fan which forces fresh air into the room and drives out the 
foul by pressure. These fans are usually located in the base- 
ment. Appliances for moistening the air have not been altogether 
satisfactory as yet. Most of them are very expensive to run. 
~The most successful are those that mix a steam spray with the 
air being forced into the room by the fans. But this means a 
great loss of heat and high fuel costs. The chief failure in most 
schemes is that they fail to make the air take up moisture fast 
enough as it circulates through or over the damp appliance. 


Air in the Human Body—Air Pressure and Breathing, Oxygen 
in the Blood; in the Cells 


As we all know the air is made up of oxygen and hydrogen. 
If the living body be analyzed we find the proportion of oxygen 
to be 72% and of hydrogen 9.1%. Carbon constitutes 13.2% and 
nitrogen 2.5%. The rest of the elements are less than 1% each. 
When we inhale air it contains about 20% oxygen, and when we 


114 THIRD QUARTER 


breathe it out, it contains about 16%, showing that the blood in 
the lungs has taken up about 4% of the oxygen contained in 
the air. The oxygen is taken from the air in the lungs by the 
blood which is flowing through the tiny network of veins in the 
lungs. The oxygen readily passes through the walls of these 
veins and combines with the haemoglobin or red coloring matter 
of the blood. 

The lungs are constructed of epithelial cells of various kinds 
and of blood vessels. The air cells are so arranged that they 
permit the air to come readily into contact with the blood. The 
wall of an air cell consists of elastic connective tissue lined with 
a layer of thin flat epithelial cells. It is in this part of the lung 
that the exchange of gases take place. The dust breathed into 
the cells is removed by the action of the cilia which literally fan 
the obstructions back to the larnyx where it is caught up. — 

Most of us think we draw in the air when we breathe. This 
is far from the truth. We have already seen how the air has 
weight and exerts pressure. What really takes place when we 
breathe is that as the muscles of the chest expand the lungs in- 
crease in size just as a wet sponge squeezed in our hand expands 
when we open the hand. As the lungs expand the air, because 
of its pressure, is forced into the vacuum in our lungs. Thus we 
see how soon we would die if the air ceased to have pressure, and 
the reason we cannot live high up in the air, where the pressure 
is low. 


Need of Moisture in the Air 
The amount of moisture in the air we breathe varies. Ona 
rainy day it is much more than on a dry hot day. But unless 
some moisture is contained in the air, we are uncomfortable. For 
causes it to lose too much of its moisture. We all know how 
dry and parched our mouth and nose feel after we have had a long 
walk on a hot day in the sun. It is nature’s way of calling for 
moisture. But the only need of moisture in the air is not because 
of the nose or lungs. The skin also does its part in ridding the 
body of wastes. If the air in the room is too dry, our skin feels 
parched. Because of the lack of moisture we require a higher 
temperature to be comfortable. A temperature of 70° in moist 
air will give a sense of warmth that 80° in dry .air cannot give. 
Tests given recently by a heating commission proved that 
moisture was quite as necessary as a supply of fresh air to the 

well being and comfort of those it surrounded. 


\ Weather—Meaning of the Term Weather 


By the term weather we mean the condition of the atmos- 
phere in respect to temperature, moisture, precipitation, sunshine, | 


THIRD QUARTER 115 


wind, dust, and electricity. When the word is mentioned, we 
immediately think how hot or how cold it is, whether it is raining 
or the sun is shining, whether the wind is blowing, and so on. It 
requires only a moment’s reflection to convince one of the great 
influence the weather must have upon the farmer and his work. 
Especially is this true of a large State with considerable variations 
in climate, such as Illinois. 


Keep Weather Record 
One of the most interesting and profitable things that can 
be done is to keep a weather record. This may be done by using a 
sheet ruled somewhat as follows: 


Temperature. Precipitation. Kind of Day. 


DAY. 


.01 inch or more 


Greatest in 24 hr 
Prevailing wind 
direction. 


Departure. 
Snowfall. 
Precipitation 
Partly cloudy. 


eoeeeto ere wto ee ele seas 


eeeetloeeeetee exe eter ee 


eeeeteeeeto ee steese 


eoeeetleeoeto ee eteeee 


eee efeeeetle ee ele eee 


eeweetleeteoeto ee ets eeoe 


eee elo ere ele ee eto eve 


ee eetleoeeoeto aoe eteene 


ere elTeoeweeto see eteeee 


eer eeotTeeeetoereeteoene 


ce*oceoertoeoeeeto ec eeofeece o 


eee eleeerete ere eteene 


eee ele Geet e ese eteo eae 


116 THIRD QUARTER 4 


Sun Observation; Relation of the Position of the Sun to 
Seasonal Changes 


From our geography, we all know how the earth revolves 
around the sun. The earth to us seems stationary, and the sun 
seems to move, but in reality, it is. the other way. During six 
months of the year, the northern hemisphere is turned toward 
the sun, and during the other six months, the southern hemis- 
phere is turned toward it. This is the cause of the change of our 
seasons. During the time when the northern hemisphere is 
turned toward the sun, the earth absorbs a great amount of heat 
from the sun during the long days, but during the time it is 
turned from the sun, it does not receive this excess heat. Hence, 
in the first period we have the heat of summer, and in the latter 
the cold of winter. 

If we will notice the sun in summer, in the late afternoons 
we see that it shines in at north windows. In winter, it shines in ~ 
at the south windows in the afternoon, but never in the north. 


Clouds, Kinds 


Every pupil is sufficiently familiar with a cloud to know 
what it is, but a more careful study of the subject is needed 
in this connection. The term cloud is used to denote the mois- 
ture of the atmosphere changed from an invisible state to minute 
particles that float for a long time in the air. Of course, these par- 
ticles are so small that they cannot fall through the ordinary 
atmosphere on account of its resistance. The moisture of the air 
is condensed into particles of water by a reduction in temper- 
ature. Everyone knows that if air comes into contact with a cold 
solid, the latter will become covered with dew; and if two masses 
of warm-moist and cold-moist air come in contact, a slight cloud 
is formed. Also moist air may be cooled by radiation of heat 
and, when it gets to the dew point, a fog or cloud appears. 
However, the principal cause of the formation of clouds is yet 
to be mentioned—dynamic cooling. Air expands when it is — 
brought under lower pressure and in expanding uses up its latent 
heat. Consequently in rising over a mountain or when raised by 
its own buoyancy, it expands and cools and clouds are formed. 

NotEe.—It is a very interesting work to keep a record of the 
days that are cloudy and partly cloudy during each month and 
compare the records. 

There are various kinds of clouds. Some of them are: 
cumulus, cerus, stratus, and the nimbus. Clouds are the result of 
the condensation of the moisture~of the air. When the cloud 
comes low enough to touch the surface of the land, we speak of it 
as a fog. 


THIRD QUARTER 117 


The various names applied to clouds depend upon the forma- 
tion, color, and shape of the cloud in question. Cumulus clouds 
are usually seen from about 10 A. M. to 3 P. M. in fair summer 
weather. The rising convection currents carry the air up where 
it expands and cools. When the dew point is reached, some of 
the vapor is condensed where it looks like great heaps of ‘frothy 
suds or fleecy wool. The cumulus clouds are irregular while 
their tops constantly change in shape. The bases remain more 
regular and float 1000 to 2500 feet high. 

Cirrus clouds usually precede a storm and are pale whitish 
plume like strips 5 to 10 miles high. They are formed by the 
currents of air that flow out of a storm area, and move steadily 
with the area of low pressure. They really because they are so 
high consist of ice crystals, if spread out in a sheet they are 
called cirrostratus. 

Stratus clouds are seen near the horizon in the late afternoon 
or early morning. They occur in long bands called strata. 

The nimbus is the dark rain bearing cloud. They often 
cover many thousand square miles. They are often but a few 
hundred feet overhead. They have no certain form, and often 
hang over a locality for days at a time. 


Winds—Relate to Convection Currents; Effects of “Lows’’ 
and ‘‘Highs’’ 

_ Winds are convection currents, and are caused by the force 
of gravity. ‘They blow from regions of high barometic pressure 
to regions of low barometic pressure, while the greater difference 
between the pressure of the two areas the greater will be the 
velocity of the wind. ‘ 

For purposes of study they are grouped into terrestrial, 
cyclonic, and continental winds. The terrestrial winds are due 
to the fact that our planet rotates and receives heat from the sun. 

~*~ When the air becomes heated at the heat equator it moves up this 
producing a low pressure belt at the equator and a corresponding 
high 5 thee fear the tropics. The former is called the 
equatorial calms or the doldrums and is caused by the ascending 
air. The high pressure belt is known as the horse latitudes and 
is caused by the descending air. 

The trade winds are those which blow from the region of 
tropical calms toward the equator. The anti-trade winds blow 
high above the regular trade winds and when they descend pro- 
duce the tropical winds or horse latitudes. 

The prevailing _ westerlies blow toward the poles from the 
horse eiitudess =~ 

‘Larre’s General Science is a most valuable book for the study 
of this part of our agriculture. It is published by Silver, Burdette 
& Co., Chicago. 


118 THIRD QUARTER 


Weather Map 


Throughout the United States and other countries, many 
observation stations have been located by the weather bureau. 
Each morning and evening at the same time a record is made of 
temperature, barometic pressure, direction, and velocity of wind, 
relative humidity, amount of rainfall, and appearance of sky. 
This information is telegraphed to the Head Bureau at Wash- 
ington where from the combined reports, weather maps which 
show the weather conditions all over the United States are 
printed. Smaller maps are printed in the larger cities from 
information sent from Washington, and these are mailed to the 
section where the substations are located. From these the 
weather may be forecast for the next 24 hours, perhaps for a 
week or more. ee 


The Weather Bureau and Its Work 


The Weather Bureau of the United States was authorized 
by act of Congress in 1890. It provided that it should be estab- 
lished on and after July 1, 1891, and be attached to the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. Section 3 makes clear the duties of the 
bureau: 

“That the Chief of the Weather Bureau, under the direc- 
tion of the Secretary of Agriculture, on and after July 1, 1891, 
shall have charge of the forecasting of the weather, the issue 
of storm warnings, the display of weather and flood signals 
for the benefit of agriculture, commerce, and navigation, the 
gauging and reporting of rivers, the maintenance and opera- 
tion of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and trans- 
mission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and 
navigation, the reporting of temperature and rainfall condi- 
tions for the cotton interests, the display of frost and cold-wave 
signals, the distribution of meteorological information in the 
interests of agriculture and commerce, and the taking of such 
meteorological observations as may be necessary to establish 


a 


and record the climatic conditions of the United States, or as 
are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties.” ~ 


We too often think only of the bureau’s work in forecast- 
ing the weather, but it also does another very important line 
of work in its climate and crop service. An accurate and com- 
prehensive record of meteorological conditions are kept for this 
purpose. 


Lighting and Light 
Light is due to waves in the ether, a medium which fills all 
space, and is quite distinct from air. These light waves are pro- 
duced by the vibrations of the same little electrons which produce 


— 


. So 


THIRD QUARTER 119 


electricity. There is a close relationship between heat and light 
The former is due to the motion of molecules, while light is caused 
by the molecules causing the electrons to vibrate so rapidly the 
sensation of light is caused. In 1676 a Danish astronomer named 
Roemer measured the speed of light and found it to be 186,000 
feet a second. Lighting is usually the term used to denote the 
use’ of artificial light. 


3 Sources of Natural Light—Sun, Moon, Stars 


Most of our light comes ‘from the sun. The moon is a non- 
luminous body, and what light we receive from it, is light re- 
flected from the sun. Most of the objects which we see are 
non-luminous bodies, and we see them merely because they reflect 
light from some other object. For this reason we can not see 
in a room where light is excluded. Some stars give light as does 
the sun; others reflect it as does the moon. Many of the stars 
we see are suns of other solar systems. All true stars twinkle, 
and have a light of their own, but the lights from the planets such 
as Saturn, Jupiter, etc., is merely reflected light like that from the 
moon. There are seven other planets revolving around the sun 
besides the earth. They are: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn, 
Jupiter, Neptune, and Uranus. 


y- Artificial Lightning. Different Methods. 


In the days of our great grandfathers the methods of light- 

ing the home were limited to the tallow-dip and the candle. As 
these were best known, and, in fact, the only ones known, 
people got along very well. But we have advanced a long way 
from those methods now, and they seem primitive indeed. With 
the advent of the various types of kerosene lamps, homes came 
to be very much better lighted. Then came the more modern 
_ methods of. lighting by the use of gasoline, acetylene, and elec- 
tricity. We do not mean to say, of course, that every farm 
home is now lighted by these iast named agencies, but that 
many farmers are making use of them and probably in the near 
future many more will do so. 
At the present time the use of candles has almost disap- 
peared. They may, however, be seen occasionally because of 
their convenience in tase of emergency. When other lights 
fail, for example, it is an easy matter to light a candle for a 
' few minutes until they are repaired. Plumbers make use of 
the candle quite frequently in their work, especially when 
working in a dark corner. As to the expense of the candle, it 
is practically negligible. 


120 THIRD QUARTER 


Kerosene Lamps 


According to reports, the first kerosene lamp was patented 
in 1859. Soon there were a score of applications and from 
twenty to eighty a year until about 1880. The simplest form 
of the kerosene lamp consists of the bowl, wick-holder, wick, 
and chimney. The bowl, of course, is the fount for the oil. 
The wick-holder is more commonly called the burner. It con- 
sists of a perforated platform device for raising and lowering 
the wick, and a dome surrounding the upper part of the wick. 
The perforations in the platform permit the passage of air to 
the flame, and the dome directs the currents of air against the 
flame. 

Always keep the bowl well filled with oil and the wick 
properly trimmed. The wick should not be allowed to become 
too short. Certainly it should never be so short as to barely 
touch the oil. This kind of economy is not economy at all. If 
the flame discharges black soot which begins to accumulate on 
the chimney, this is a sign that there should be regulation of 
the air supply, the trimming of the wick, or similar needs. 

There are several varieties of kerosene lamps. These we 
may enumerate as follows: the flat-wick, lamp the round-wick 
lamp, the mantle lamp, the pressure lamp, and the angle lamp. 
The best known is perhaps the flat-wick lamp, which generally 
has a wick an inch or an inch and one-half in width. It often 
furnishes light for sixty hours on a single gallon of good oil. 
The round-wick lamp is such that the wick is drawn into the 
shape of a cylinder, and the air may pass to the flame from 
both sides. The mantle lamp makes use of a mantle, suspended 
above the flame, by means of which a soft and pleasing white 
light is produced. The mantle is made somewhat as follows: A 
cotton netting is soaked in a nitrate of thoria and then burned, . 
leaving only the framework of the net. This is next soaked in 
a solution of gun cotton in ether and castor oil. This gives 
firmness to the mantle. Of course, this material is burned off 
when the mantle is placed in position in the lamp. Keep the 
wick carefully trimmed at all times, but this does not mean that 
all the dark portions should be removed. It simply means that 
it should be smooth and even. The pressure lamp is one that does ~ 
not make use of a wick, but supples the fuel by pressure. The 
angle lamp has the burner placed at an angle so that the wick is 
almost horizontal. It makes use of a double chambered bowl, 
the oil in the outer one being always kept at the same level. 


Two Kinds of Gasoline Lamps 
There are two kinds of gasoline lamps, those that furnish 


the fuel to the burner by gravity pressure, and those that fur- 


THIRD QUARTER 121 


nish it by air pressure. The former type of lamp has the bowl 
suspended above the burner. There is, of course, always danger 
in'case of a leak, and for this reason the kind is being rapidly 
replaced by the air-pressure lamp. The air-pressure lamp raises 
the fuel to the burner under pressure applied to the gasoline. 
Often a hand pump is used to force several pounds of air pres- 
sure. on the liquid. The air is pumped right into the bowl or 
tank. - 

A mantle is generally provided for the pressure lamp, and 
there is a device for volatilizing the gasoline so that it can be 
consumed as a gas. Some lamps of this kind may be obtained 
for as low a price as $10 or $12. 

By means of the hollow-wire system gasoline can easily be 
used to light a whole residence, church, school, or store. The 
system consists of a pressure tank and a hand pump, hollow 
wire for conveying the gasoline, burners, and fixtures. The 
tank should generally be placed outside the building or, at 
least, where there is no danger of setting fire to the liquid. 
There should be a pressure gauge on the tank, and the tank 
should hold from five to ten gallons. In filling the tank, it is 
well not to put in too much gasoline. Some say that it should 
be filled three-fourths full of the liquid, this leaving room to 
force in enough air to provide the desired pressure. 

As the use of gasoline is somewhat dangerous, the hollow 
wire and pipes should always be tested carefully and the tank 
kept free from fire. 

Chandeliers of various kinds are used in the farm home. 
Often they consist of a single light and globe, but frequently 
two-light and three-light devices. A hanging chain enables the 
light to be drawn low. 


Acetylene Lamp 


Acetylene gas has been found to be one of the hydrocar- 
bons, but much heavier than gas of the natural,variety. When 
ignited it produces a somewhat smoky flame. When it is used 
in the proper type of lamp with a good burner, it gives off a 
very pretty light, almost white. 

What are the advantages of acetylene? First, its odor is 
‘pungent, but not so offensive as gasoline. Second, it is said to 
use less oxygen from the air and so give up less carbon dioxide. 
Third, it does not explode in its natural state. Fourth, it is 
less poisonous than nattiral gas and other varieties. ~~~ 


& ° ° 
y | Electric Lights Yao 
___ As compare¢l_with the other methods of lighting, electricity 
is far superior. There is no danger of an explosion, no offensive 


122 THIRD QUARTER 


odor, and little danger from fire. It is noiseless and practically 
without heat. The quality of the light is especially good. The 
tungsten burner, of course, should be used, as it is superior to 
the cheap carbon lamp. 

The choice of fixtures must rest with personal taste. There 
ars sO many varieties of fixtures and globes that one could 
hardly attempt an explanation. If the ceiling is clear and 
white, it is better to use a white globe so placed as to cast the 
light up to the ceiling, thus giving indirect light. This not 
only looks better, but produces a light that is not so trying on 
the eyes. If fixtures for direct lighting are used, care should 
be exercised in order to have the lights placed at the proper 
height. 


Light Produced by a Flame; a Glow 


In a general way, we have covered this point. Most of the 
kerosene lamps produce their light by a flame, and gas and 
acetylene also may be used in this way. When, however, the 
mantle is used, the flame is reduced to a bright glow. We have 
already discussed the mantle and its structure and have noted 
the fact that it makes a much more beautiful and pleasing light. 

The electric light is produced by passing a current through 
a very fine coil of wire, producing an extremely bright glow. 
We have noted that the tungsten burner was better than the 
carbon burner. This is because the glow is much brighter and 
clearer. The carbon burner.can be determined by the dark 
red color of its glow. 


‘Candle, Parts That Produce Flame, Candle Power 


The first candles were made by dipping a wick into some 
sort of melted fat, and then allowing it to cool. This process 
was repeated until the candle was of the length and thickness 
desired. They are now made of fats and various other kind of 
waxes that are moulded around a heavy string or wick. When 
it becomes solid it is ready for use. The flame is due to the 
combustion of the gases in the wax or fat. These contain 
particles of carbon which have been heated to a glow, hence the 
flame and light. 

Light is measured by so many candle power. This 

candle power is the quantity of light given by a sperm candle 
of the sort known as “sixes,” meaning six candles to the pound. 
Light is measured by an instrument known as a photometer. 
If we wish to see how the flame is produced, take a new candle, 
one that has never been burnt. Light the wick at the end, and 
note how it burns up in a flash. A steady flame’ is not produced 
until the wax of the candle has become ignited. 


THIRD QUARTER 123 


Lights Used in Early Times; Pine Knot, Primitive Lamp; 
Candle; Kerosene Lamp, Experiments to Show use of 
Burner, Chimney, Etc. 


The pine knot was the earliest means of lighting. It was 
burnt in the fireplace and the pitch and oils in the knot served to 
produce a flame that lit the room. 

The primitive lamp consisted of a dish of fat or oil, with a 
rag held upright. This served as a wick and was ignited. It 
served as a make shift lamp. 

Candles have already been discussed as has the kerosene 
lamp. 

The burner on a lamp is used to mix the air with the carbon 
thus producing a steady light. If one wishes to see how the 
mixture of air affects a kerosene lamp, have him take a burner, 
rub soap or some similar material over the small holes in the 
bottom of the burner and try it on the lamp. 

To show the part played by the chimney, remove the 
chimney from a lighted lamp. 

To see how the wick serves its purpose, try burning a small 
quantity of oil or fat in an open dish. 


Crude Petroleum and Its Products and Uses 


Crude petroleum is a dark ill-smelling oily liquid obtained 
from oil wells in various parts of the world, Pennsylvania ‘and 
Ohio had our first oil wells; Texas and California came next, 
while of late years especially rich ones have been brought in in 
Arkansas. . 

Its products are obtained by refining the crude oil and are :— 
petroleum, gasoline, ether, naptha, aan kerosene, paraffine, 
vaseline, and petroleum jelly. 

“Petroleum and gasoline are used as s fuels or light. Ether is 
used in surgery as an anesthetic; naptha has various uses, mainly 
as a cleaning agent, benzine and kerosene are used as light or 
heat producers, paraffine in numerous ways, while vaseline and 
petroleum jelly are used in a medicinal way. But it is only fair 
to say that each product has other uses, far too numerous to 
mention here. The pupil is advised to study this subject farther. 

Gasoline lamps have been discussed in a preyious topic. 

Gas may be divided into natural and artificial gas. The 
former flows from wells much like oil. It frequently is found in 
oil regions and to prospectors for oil, is a good indication that 
oil is present. Artificial gas in its manufactured states, makes 
use of crude oil, or petroleum, or some of its refined products. 


~ 


124 THIRD QUARTER 


ELECTRIC LIGHTS 


How are the Lights Produced? How Electricity is Generated 


Electric light is produced by the glowing of the wire 
filament used in the electric light bulb. The current passing 
through the filiament heats it to the glowing point, but the wire 
is not consumed for the bulb has had the air exhausted from 
it, hence there is no oxygen in it. 

Electricity like heat and fire is produced by friction. If we 
rub silk with glass we get positive electricity, but if we rub hard 
rubber with 4 woolen cloth we get negative electricity. 

A substance which conducts electricity we call a conductor 
and one which repells electricity we call a nonconductor. The 
best conductors are metals and solutions of salts and acids in 
water, while glass, rubber, dry air, wood, silk shellac, and oils 
are good insulators. | 

Every atom of all substances is known to contain both 
negative and positive electricity. The former exists in the form 
of electrons, or particles of negative electricity. The latter exists 
as the nucleus around which the electrons cluster. Now let us 
take a piece of woolen cloth and rub briskly a piece of hard 
rubber. The result is electricity is generated for some of the 
electrons are taken from the atoms on the piece of cloth and 
collected on the piece of rubber. Now we say the rubber has 
a negative charge for more negative particles have been deposited 
on it than there were and the total is greater than the positive 
particles. 

But if a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the electrons leave the 
rod and cling to the silk. Then we say the glass rod has a 
positive charge since it has more positive than negative particles. 
This is the generation of electricity in its simplest form. In an 
unelectrified body the balance is maintained evenly between 
positive and negative particles. 


Eyes and Lights 


Most of our light comes from the sun, and hence is called 
natural light. Rightly used this is the nearest perfect light we - 
can secure. The eye has been likened to a small camera, the 
pupil, which may be called the shutter, the crystaline lens or 
convex lens into the dark portion and the picture is made on 
the retina at the back of the eye. This corresponds to the plate 
of the camera. But it is far more delicate than any camera, and 
great care should be taken to protect it from injury or strain. 


THIRD QUARTER 125 


Parts of the Human Eye 


The outer part of the eye are the eyebrow, eyelashes, upper 
and lower lids. The eyeball itself is set in a bony socket which 
is carefully padded with fatty tissue. It and the lids are covered 
with a mucus membrane called the conjunctiva. This secretes 
a fluid, which with the lachrymal fluid, secreted by the lachrymal 
gland, keeps the eye moist. The movements of the eye are con- 
trolled by six muscles. 

In diameter the eyeball is about one inch. It is covered 
with a sclerotic coat except in front, and a point at the back 
where the optit nerve enters. This we call the white of the eye, 
and the part in front which is transparent is known as the cornea. 
The choroid is a second coat within the sclerotic. This contains 
a networkvof blood vessels and because of the dark pigment it 
contains is so black it looks like the inside of a grape skin. In 
front the choroid gives place to a sort of muscular curtain called 
the ivis. It is the iris that gives the color to one’s eye. The 
light enters the eye through the pupil or round opening in the 
iris. The third layer of the eye is know as the retina. It is a 
delicate Iayer of transparent membrane on which is“Spread the 
optic nerve. It is the only part of the eye sensitive to light 
The vitreous humor is a colorless jelly-like mass that fills the 
interior of the eyeball. The crystalline lens is between the 
vitreous humor and the iris. This focuses the light, and helps 
make the image clear and distinct. Between the lens and the 
cornea is a clear watery liquid known as the aqueous humor. 


Care of the Eyes 


Pets foes 

One cannot be too careful in regard to the care of the eye. He 
should not read or otherwise use his eyes until they become over- 
tired. A good way to rest the eyes is to lift them from one’s work 
occasionally, and look off at some distant object for a few 
minutes. This rests the strained muscles, which keep the eye 
‘ in focus. Nor should one work in dim light or in too glaring a 
light. Never work at close work with the sun shining on it. Be- 
ware of red lamp shades. Do not attempt to treat the eye for 
any ailment. If it needs treatment go to the best oculist obtain- 
able. Never use glasses that were fitted to another person. If 
a foreign body gets in the eye, do not rub the injured mémber. 
Lift the lid gently and let the tears wash out the obstruction, or 
blow the nose gently. If it must be removed with a bit of cloth, 
be sure the cloth is clean. If the eye is inflamed a solution of 
boracic acid is a good wash. 


126 THIRD QUARTER 


Proper Methods of Lighting; Lighting in Homes and School 
Buildings 

According to a report submitted by the Eye Sight Con- 
servation Council of America, improper illumination has been 
a prolific source of poor ey esight. 

The three important clements of lighting are declared to be: 

(a) amount of illumination, 
(b) distribution of lght, and 
(c) diffusion of light. 

Since we are dependent upon the light from the sky for all - 
our natural lighting and since it is far superior to any form 
of artificial light, every means should be provided whereby it 
can be utilized as much as possible. Windows and skylights are 
the most direct means of admitting light to a room. Therefore, 
in building a home or schoolhouse, provision should be made 
for them, and the architects design for the building should take 
this requirement into account. 

The width of the class room should be governed by the 
number and location of windows. The room should be so 
planned that no seat or work space is more distant from the 
window than twice the height of the top of the window from 
the floor. This requirement was given by Guy A. Henry of 
New York, Director of the Eye-Sight Conservation Council. 
He has also given much careful attention to the size of class 
rooms and recommends one from 28 to 32 feet long, by 22 feet 
wide, with a ceiling 12 to 14 feet in height. . 

The diffusion of light is perhaps the most difficult problem 
that confronts experts, that is to secure the maximum light on 
the work, and yet at the same time to control the brightness of 
the light source. Diffusion is secured at windows by shades, 
and on lamps by shades or globes. 

The light must come from the left side over one’s work. 
Authorities therefore recommend unilateral lighting from that 
side. When this is not sufficient owing to the width of the room 
or various other causes, it is preferable to have additional win- 
dows on the rear rather than on the right side, unless the room 
is very wide. But if rooms like auditoriums are very large, 
windows on opposite sides are not objectionable. Overhead 
lighting from natural sources is not practical in many cases. 
When used, the light should come from a north skylight or saw- 
toothed roof construction, and be so located as to avoid direct 
sunlight. 

But though daylight is the most perfect form of lighting, 
care must be taken with it as with artificial light, or harm may 
be done to one’s eyes. 


THIRD QUARTER a VY oo 


There have been many types of lighting fixtures placed on 
the market in the last few years. Many of them are wasteful 
of light as well as inartistic in design. For the home semi- 
indirect lighting by means of the translucent bowl is especially 
recommended. 


The Oculist_ 


The npatics is a physician who ‘has given especial study to 
the eye, ifs treatment, and the fitting of glasses. A poor oculist 
is dear at any fee. In many small towns, some doctor who has 
failed as a general practicioner sets himself up as an oculist. The 
injury such men do to their patients is incalculable. When it 
comes to treating the eve, only the best aid obtainable is good 
enough. Better go without glasses than wear those fitted by 
someone who does not understand his business. 


128 FOURTH QUARTER 


FOURTH QUARTER 


POULTRY, BIRDS, LANDSCAPE GARDENING 


Poultry—Different Kinds Found in Community 


Turkeys, ducks, geese, and guinea fowls are the chiet barn- 
yard fowls besides chickens. 

Turkeys are the only one of our barnyard fowls that are 
natives of America. They are undoubtedly descended from the 
American wild turkeys which were found wild over the greater 
part of North America. The wild turkey is easily tamed, espe- 
cially if the eggs are hen hatched. There are six varieties recog- 
nized. They are the bronze, the Narragansett, buff, slate, white, 
and black. 

They are the largest of our barn yard fowls, and because 
of their size, are profitably raised for their meat. The turkey 
is nervous in disposition, and does not do well if penned up. It is 
a rover by nature. The hen will lay from thirty to forty eggs in 
a season, but as the young are somewhat difficult to raise, many 
young are lost. 

Ducks rank perhaps next to turkeys in importance Their 
eggs are little in demand except for hatching. There are at least 
ten different breeds and twelve varieties recognized. The adult 
will weigh from seven to ten pounds for the male, and six to 
eight for the female. They have some advantages over chickens, 
in that they are more free of diseases than chickens. They also 
require less care, if they have free access to a pond or stream. 

Geese are raised for both their feathers and meat. There are 
at least six breeds and seven varieties which vary much in size, 
shape, and color. The males weigh twelve to twenty pounds when 
full grown. In size they rank second to turkeys. They are less 
extensively raised than ducks, since to do well they must have 
access to water at all times. 

Guinea fowls are occasionally found on farms, but because 
of their semi-wild nature they cannot be classed as an economic 
bird. They refuse to make their nest except in hiding and if 
disturbed while sitting, will leave the nest and not return. There 
are at least four varieties of guinea fowls. They are natives of 
Africa. Since their flesh has a game taste, it is often sold and 
served as various kinds of wild fowl. Broilers pass as quail on 
toast, and the larger ones as pheasants, grouse, or prairie chickens. 


Ss 


FOURTH QUARTER 129 


They have a distinctive beautiful covering of feathers, and a 
harsh, discordant cry that is very different from all other barn- 
yard fowls. 


Study a Chicken 


Unlike the other animals studied this year, the chicken 1s 
a biped, or an animal with two legs, and belongs to the avis, or 
bird family. Its general appearance is too well known to need 
discussion. 


Feet and Wings 


Beginning with the knee joint, the shank of the chicken 
extends to the toes or claws. This shank is sometimes partly 
covered with feathers and again is smooth, according to the 
breed. There are three toes extending forward, and one back- 
ward. As the fowls grow old, a spur develops at the side back 
above the back toe. Each toe ends in a prominent curved nail. 
The color of the shank depends on the breed. 

The wing of a chicken is composed of three main parts. The 
part which joins the body is known as the wing bow, and is 
usually covered with fine, soft feathers. The second part is the 
wing coverts, forming the wing bar. The third part is mainly 
bone and skin, is short and bears the feathers known as the flight 
coverts. Just back of these feathers, and attached to the second 
part of the wing are the primaries, or flight feathers, while back 
of these attached to the main part of the wing are the secondaries 
or wing bay. 


Sense Organs 


The chicken, like most animals, has two eyes and two ears. 
The eyes are placed one on each side of the head, usually in a 
line with the beak. The ear lobes hang below and somewhat back 
of the line of the eye. 


Food Procuring Organs 


The chicken’s food procuring organs are the beak and toes. 
The latter are provided with strong, curved nails, which not only 
can secure a good living for the fowl in question, but which will 
also work havoc in the garden should their owner leave the gate 
open. 


FEATHERS 


The greater part of the body of the chicken is covered with 
feathers. Usually the upper part of the head or comb, the bill, 
and feet are free of this covering. This depends largely on the 


130 FOURTH QUARTER 


breed. Some breeds have feathers on the legs, others have none; 
some have but small, smooth feathers on the head, others have 
heavy neck feathers almost in a ruff form. The comb and wattles 
differ in the various breeds so much that they may be considered 
distinguishing marks of the breeds. This is true also of the feet 
and legs. In some breeds they are white, in others yellow or 
orange, in others black. The quality and color of the feathers 
are also distinguishing marks of breeds, and will be discussed as 
each breed is taken up in detail. 


Parts of a Feather. Different Kinds Found on One Chicken 


There are two parts to a feather, the quill and the down. 
The quill is the means whereby it is fastened to the skin of the 
foul and the down is the hairlike protrudences from the quill. 

There are three kinds found on a chicken, the down from the 
breast and thighs, the wings and tail feathers, and the back and 
neck feathers. The most valuable are the breast and thigh 
feathers. The wings and tail feathers are rarely marketable, 
while the back and neck feathers may be stripped and sold as 
down. 


Breeds of Chickens 


There are one hundred four standard varieties of chickens 
raised in this country. However, the standard varieties may be 
divided into four general classes: 

1. General purpose breeds, including the American class, 
the Orpingtons, and the Houdans. 

The meat or table breeds, such as the Dorkings, Indian | 
Games, and the Asiatic class. 

3. Egg breeds, including the Mediterranean, the Dutch class, 
and the Redcaps. 

4. Ornamental breeds, such as the Polish, Creve Coeurs, the 
Game, and the Game Bantam class, the Oriental Game, and 
various others. 

In Class 1, we find the Plymouth Rocks, the most popular 
of all breeds of poultry, as a general purpose fowl. It is greyish 
white in color, each feather crossed by narrow, parallel bars of 
dark blue back. It is medium size, with broad, full breast, 
moderately large head, bright red, upright comb, yellow beak and 
shanks, and a large, bright red or bay eye. 

They are hardy and mature early. They are good layers the 
year around. Their eggs are brown in color, averaging eight to 
the pound. They are good sitters and mothers. The standard 
weight ranges from nine and one-half pounds for cocks to six 
and one-half pounds for pullets. 


FOURTH QUARTER 131 


The Wyandotte ranks next to the Plymouth Rock as a 
general purpose fowl. They average about one pound less in 
weight than the Plymouth Rocks, but are hardy and are prolific 
layers. Their flesh is sweet, juicy, and tender. There are eight 
' varieties of the Wyandotte breed, the difference in color being the 
only distinguishing mark. The Silver Wyandotte has a silvery 
white plumage, with regularly marked black on the breast. The 
Golden Wyandotte is marked the same except it is golden bay 
instead of white. The other varieties, the Partridge, Silver- 
penciled, and others, are less known. 

The Javas are one of the oldest of the American class. They 
enjoyed great popularity at one time because they were so pro- 
lific, but at present are having to give place to newer breeds. They 
are good mothers, good layers, and mature early. In size, they 
are about like the Plymouth Rocks. 

Dominiques are similar in plumage. They have rose combs, 
and bright yellow legs. They are good layers, and mature early. 

The Rhode Island Red is one of the newer breeds that 
enjoys great popularity. They are hardy, medium in size, lay 
brown-shelled eggs, are good sitters, and good mothers. The 
single comb and the rose comb are the two varieties of this breed 
They average in weight from cocks at eight and one-half ta 
pullets at five pounds. They are a rich, brilliant red in color, 
with black wings and tail. The hens are somewhat lighter in 
color than the cocks. 

In the meat or table breeds among the Asiatics, we find the 
Light Brahma at the head. These have been known by various 
names, perhaps the most common being Gray Shanghais. In 
color, it is white and black, white predominating. A standard- 
bred bird should show no other color. The shanks are well 
feathered, with feathers extending down the middle toe. They 
are the largest of all domestic poultry and do well in confine- 
ment. They average twelve or thirteen dozen eggs per year. 
They lay well in winter. There eggs are large, averaging about 
seven to the pound. They are excellent in flavor and a rich brown 
color. They do not mature as early as some others, and as 
sitters and mothers are just fair. They are good for table use. 

_ There are four varieties of Cochins, all popular with 
breeders. They are hardy and lay fairly well in winter. They 
are medium good fowls for table use and their eggs are of 
fair size. | 

The Buff variety is one of the most popular. They are a 
rich, golden buff color. They have heavy leg and toe feathering. 

The Partridge Cochin, being more difficult to breed, is less 
known. 


132 FOURTH QUARTER 


The Black Cochin is a rich, glossy black, while the White 
Cochin is pure white. 

The Langshans are a popular breed of Asiatics. They are 
the smallest and most active of this class. Their flesh is of fine 
flavor, tender, and fine grained. They average twelve to thirteen 
dozen eggs per year. They are good sitters, good mothers, and 
the chicks are hardy and mature early. Because of their simi- 
larity in looks, the Black Langshans are sometimes confused with 
the Black Cochin. There are two varieties of Langshans—the 
Black and the White—the Black having glossy, metallic-looking 
feathers, with a greenish sheen. The White Langhans are pure 
white. 

In Class I]1I—the egg breeds in the Mediterranean—we find 
the Leghorns at the head. They are the best known of the egg- 
producing class. There seems to be no doubt that this breed 
originated in Italy. The Leghorns hold much. the same place 
in the poultry house as a Jersey cow does in the barn. They 
are excellent foragers, light eaters, and mature early. The pullets 
often begin laying when four or five months old. They average 
one hundred fifty to two hundred eggs per year. The eggs are 
pure white, and average ten to the pound. For table use they are 
small. They are non-sitters. They must be warmly housed in 
winter if they lay well. 

There are eight standard varieties of Leghorns: Single 
Comb Black, Silver Duck Wing, Single Comb and Rose Comb 
Buff, Single Comb and Rose Comb Brown, and Single Comb and 
Rose Comb White. — 

The Minorcas rank next to the Leghorns in laying qualities. 
They are very similar in looks to the Leghorns. Their origin is in 
doubt but some contend they came from Minorca Island in the 
Mediterranean Sea. They are one of our most profitable breeds 
of poultry. While they are good for table purposes, their chief 
value is as egg producers. They lay the year around but are 
non-sitters. Their eggs are white and average eight to the pound. 
They are hardy, mature early, and are good foragers. The comb 
of the Minorca.is larger and bulkier than that of the Leghorns. 
The ear lobes are pure white. There are three varieties of 
Minorcas—Black, White, and the Rose Comb Black Minorca. In 
weight they average nine pounds for Single Comb Black cock to 
five and one-half for Single Comb White Minorca pullet. 

The Dorkings come under the meat or table breeds and are 
of English origin. They are one of our oldest of domestic fowls. 
Its chief distinguishing mark is the fifth toe, which grows out 
behind, a little above the foot, below the spur. Its flesh is white 
and very delicate. They are not good layers but are good sitters 
and mothers. There are three varieties—the White, Silver Grey, 


FOURTH QUARTER 133 


and Colored. The White is really the purest as to breed. Its 
color is pure white; comb, bright red, and shanks and toes white. 
The Silver Grey Dorkings are marked with black. The Colored 
Dorkings are black and straw color, while the female may show 
dark salmon on the breast. Dorkings differ in weight from nine 
pounds for colored cock to five pounds for white. 

The Orpingtons are the latest importation from England. 
They are an all round, general purpose fowl of good size and 
good layers. Eggs are brown shelled. There are ten different 
varieties of this breed. The weight ranges from ten pounds in 
cocks to seven in pullets. The Buff Orpington is perhaps the most 
popular, and should be a rich, golden buff. 

In the egg breeds in the Dutch class, the Hamburgs ranks 
first as egg producers. They are not sitters, light eaters, and good 
foragers. Their eggs are small and white shelled. 

Since the ornamental class is bred very little in this region, 
it will not be discussed here. If interested, consult Farmers’ 
Bulletin No. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens, by George E. 
Howard. 


Types of Chickens 


There are four general classes of chickens. They are: 
(1) egg type, (2) meat type, (3) general utility, and (4) orna- 
mental breeds, noted for style or as game breeds. The egg type 
is bred with the idea of securing the greatest egg production pos- 
sible, while the meat type is intended for table use. The general 
utility type combines the best points of each, and ranks well 
either as an egg or meat type. The ornamental breeds are little 
raised in this country. 


Feeding; Housing; and General Care of Chickens 


Like all farm animals, chickens demand a balanced ration. 
But since heavy demands are made upon the hen in egg produc- 
tion, some elements are essential in her feed not required by 
other animals. Grit is one of these. It is useful not only in 
furnishing material for the egg shells, but in grinding up the food 
in the gizzard. Since most of the grits on the market contain little 
or no lime, this must be fed in the form of cracked oyster shells 
or mortar. 

Meat is also an essential part of every poultry ration. This 
holds good for both grown and growing fowls, whether of the egg 
or meat type. From ten to fifteen per cent of the daily feed 
should be meat. It may be fed in the form of beef scraps, skim 
milk, or green bone. 

There must also be a daily feeding of green stuff. Mangles 
may be used in the winter, and clover pasture in the summer, 


134 FOURTH QUARTER 


Such food promotes health and aids in digestion. The grain 
ration should be one-half to two-thirds whole grain and one-third 
to one-half cracked or ground feed. Fowls may prefer the whole 
grain but in the laying season, food should be supplied that is 
readily used by the system. 

Young chicks do not require feed for from twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours after hatching, since the yolk of the egg has 
been enclosed in its body, and supplies nourishment for this 
period. The first feed given young chicks may be stale bread 
dipped in milk. Ground corn soaked in milk is also good. Fine 
grit, charcoal ,and granulated bone should be fed along with the 
ground feed after the first few days. For the first few days, the 
young chicks should be fed five times a day. Then this may be 
reduced to four and later to three. They should be fed all they 
will clean up. Feed just enough to satisfy them. It is a good 
plan to feed over a light litter of straw, so they will have to 
scratch for it. Green food should be given twice a day. The 
night feeding should be heavy. 

Fresh, clean water should be furnished the chicks at all 
times. It should be given in some sort of drinking fountain that 
will not allow the down of the chick to become wet. The flock 
should be sorted occasionally, and the stronger taken from the 
weaker. This prevents injury to the weaker ones and gives them 
a better chance at their feed. 

The growing chick should have plenty of exercise. Free 
range should be given them. But they should never be permitted 
to run in moist, boggy land, but on a dry, southern slope. 

Under normal conditions, the hen lays more in the spring 
than at any other season of the year. Hence, if we wish to feed 
for egg production, our aim should be to continue spring condi- 
tions as much as possible. If allowed free range, the hen in the 
spring will feed on fresh, tender grasses, bugs, and worms. This 
ration, or a similar one, combined with a slight grain ration, forms 
a good egg-production feed. 

About one-half as much mash or ground feed should be fed 
as whole grain. Beets, cabbage, green clover, sprouted oats, 
fresh, green clover, or other succulent food should be fed unless 
the fowls have free range. Bone, charcoal, grit, and oyster shells 
should be accessible at all times. All food and scratch litter 
should be sweet and clean, free of all mold and mustiness. These 
are liable to cause serious digestible trouble. 

The laying hen should be fed up to her capacity to eat. Dry 
food fed in a hopper is a most satisfactory way of feeding dry 
foods. Mineral matter may be given in the form of oyster shells, 
ground bone, or bone meal, or green cut bone, 


x 


FOURTH QUARTER : 135 


In feeding for table use or meat production, an entirely 
different method must be followed. Some confine from twenty- 
five to fifty fowls in a small yard or pen, others use crates, holding 
four to six fowls each. Ten days to three weeks are usually re- 
quired to put fowls in proper shape for the market. Before the 
fattening process is begun, they must be dusted with insect 
powder to free them of all vermin. The greatest care should be 
used that they are not overfed at the beginning of the fattening 
process. All the utensils around the pens must be kept sweet and 
clean. Beef scraps, skim milk, and grain are the best fattening 
foods. Some feeders prefer to have the grain fine ground and 
soaked in sour milk. 

Broilers are the chicks marketed at six to twelve weeks of 
age. These vary from three-fourths to two pounds. The roosters 
fatten most profitably at three to four months of age, and should 
weigh at least six pounds. 

Poultry houses should be clean, comfortable, and well ven- 
tilated. Most of the diseases of poultry are traceable to unsani- 
tary housing conditions. The poultry house should be placed in 
a dry, well drained location, preferably on a southern slope, if 
this is possible. The poultry house should at least face the south, 
so that in the winter it can get all of the available sunlight. Four 
to five square feet of floor space should be allowed for each 
chicken. The colony house and the long house are the two gen- 
eral types of poultry houses. The colony house is intended to 
accommodate a small flock or colony and may be portable or non- 
portable. The portable house is usually placed in runners and 
drawn from one place to another. This type has many ad- 
vantages over the non-portable, since after harvest, the houses 
may be taken to the fields and all the loose grain cleaned up. 
This also provides more free range, and a greater supply of bugs 
and worms. 

The long house is less expensive to build and makes caring 
for the birds easier, but the chickens have less range, require 
more feed, and greater care must be used in keeping the yard 
clean. The scratching shed is one of the most valuable parts 
of the chicken lot. It is an ordinary shed, inclosed on three 
sides, and attached to the chicken house so the chickens can go 
in as they will. It provides both freedom and exercise for the 
fowls. It is advisable to have the windows low and wide and 
both glass and cloth provided in order to insure proper ventila- 
tion. One square foot of glass and one of curtain surface should 
be provided for each sixteen square feet of floor space. The 
floor may be of cement, dirt or sand. The latter are advisable, 
providing they can be kept dry and clean. If used they should 
be higher than the surrounding land. 


136 FOURTH QUARTER 


Just what interior fixtures and labor saving devices are used 
depends much on the number of fowls, and the time possible to 
give to their care. If one begins the poultry business for profit, 
and on a large scale, the sooner one becomes acquainted with 
labor saving devices the better, but if the flock is small and kept 
only for home use, it will scarcely prove profitable to invest in 
much expensive equipment. 

There is no animal, not even the dairy cow, that is more 
susceptible to housing conditions and general care than the hen. 
Many things may cause a hen to cease laying. Excessive heat 
or cold, fright, too little feed, and change of location are some 
of the most common causes of cessation of egg production. 

Great care must be exercised in selecting eggs for hatching 
purposes. Eggs from strong fowls should be used. They should 
be uniform in size and true in color to that particular breed. 
Either natural or artificial incubation may be used. However, 
perfect as an incubator may be, it rarely equals the mother hen 
herself, provided she is wisely selected. Incubators of one hun- 
dred to two hundred egg capacity are hardly to be recommended, 
because of the fact that in a machine of this size moisture, tem- 
perature, and other vital factors are hard to control. A machine 
of six hundred to one thousand egg capacity is usually much more 
economical in the end. 

If artificial incubation is used, artificial brooders must be 
provided. The first need of a young chick is heat. The tem- 
perature should vary from 90° to 100° F. for the first three or 
four weeks. It is always better to have too much rather than 
too little heat, provided the chicks may have an opportunity to 
get away from it, if they wish. 


Selecting Hens for Laying Purposes ; . for Breeding 


The egg type is neat and trim, very active, and upstanding. 
The body is spare and the legs long. A hen likely to make a 
good layer may usually be classed as small or medium. Its dis- 
position will be nervous and active. They fly readily, are alert, 
and easily frightened. A good layer will mature early. Feathers, 
comb and wattles will develop early. Rapid feathering and 
rapid molting show great constitutional vigor. A good layer 
usually is a “non-sitter.’ They are excellent foragers, being 
active and industrious. The layer to do well must be given a 
good range. If she is, she will secure the greater part of her 
own living. 

The molting period is a good time to select fowls for breed- 
ing purposes. A fowl that molts rapidly is of a strong, vigorous 
constitution. In making this selection, a fowl with a deep, long 
wedge-shaped body should be chosen, if the breeding is done 


FOURTH QUARTER 137 


for egg production. Two year old hens are to be recommended, 
since they are more mature than pullets, hence they lay more 
perfectly developed eggs. One male should be selected for each 
fifteen to twenty-five hens. For best results choose only the eggs 
from the hens selected that are normal in size, perfect in shape, 
true in color, and of good, firm shell. 


Incubators and Brooders 


An incubator is really an artificial hen which depends on man 
to do its thinking. With good eggs, most makes of incubators 
will give good results, providing reasonable care is exercised in 
its management. 

There are two types of incubators—hot_ water and hot air. 
The former is recommended when one thousand or more eggs 
are to be hatched at one time, but for the smaller numbers, hot 
air is perhaps to be preferred. 

Top heat is essential. It must be uniform. The temperature 
of a brooding hen is about 104°. Fresh air is of prime import- 
ance and each machine must, therefore, possess sufficient ventila- 
tion. A certain degree of moisture is also essential, but the air 
must never be saturated. 

No especial type of incubator can be recommended here. 
Each new. one that appears on the market has some point of 
advantage over its predecessor. As a general rule, however, it 
may be stated that the machine which nearest follows the hen’s’ 
method of hatching is most likely to be successful. 

Printed directions are sent out with each incubator and these 
directions should be followed faithfully, since they are based on 
the experience of experts in handling that particular make. 

The incubator should be placed where the temperature is 
more or less uniform. It should be airy but free of drafts. The 
place selected for the incubator often determines whether or not 
the hatching will be successful. Be sure it sets level. Always 
test it out for at least twenty-four hours before placing any eggs 
in it. ) 

The eggs should be turned regularly twice a day from the 
third to the eighteenth day. After this, they need not be turned. 
The cooling of the eggs requires practice. At first it is done 
when they are turned. After the seventh day, once each day, 
the eggs are removed from the machine until they become cool. 
After the eighteenth day, they are not cooled. 

After the eighteenth day, the incubator is closed and not 
opened until the hatch is completed. Twenty-four hours before 
the brooder is to be used, it should be heated to make sure it is 
dry and warm. ‘The temperature should be at 95° when the 
newly hatched chicks are placed in it. They will raise the tem- 


138 FOURTH QUARTER 


perature to 96° or even 98°. This should be maintained for the 
first week, then gradually lowered till it reaches 90° at the end 
of two weeks. From this on a temperature of 75° is sufficient in 
the hover. 


There are many makes of brooders on the market, some of: 


intricate design, others so simple they may be duplicated at little 
expense by the home workman. It is essential that the brooder 
be placed in a dry, light place, that an even temperature be main- 
tained, and that there be plenty of space and good ventilation. 


Value of Chickens 


In economic importance there is no doubt that chickens rank 
first of all barn yard fowls. Turkeys are easily second, because 
of the size they attain—some of the Bronze males going over 
thirty pounds. 

The census of 1900 Heed that there were 233,598,085 
chickens and guinea fowls on farms in the United States. The 
turkeys numbered 6,599,367; geese, 5,676,863, and ducks, 
4,807,358. The same statistics showed that about 89 per cent 


of all the farms of the country kept poultry, and that the total . 


value was $136,891,877. More than 250,000,000 chickens and 
other poultry are consumed every year for meat. This may be 
a surprise to many who do not realize that poultry for many 
centuries has supplied a large proportion of the food of man. 
Scarcely a country in the world but what recognizes that the poul- 
try industry i is an important part of the agriculture industry. 

Under the term poultry, we can probably class only those 
fowls bred either for their flesh or eggs. For this reason, carrier 
pigeons cannot be called poultry, nor can pea fowls, bred for 
ornament, nor wild game come under this heading. 

Chickens, geese, ducks, guinea fowls, and pigeons, used for 
eating purposes, are the chief kinds of poultry bred in this 
country. In some places, and especially in Europe, pheasants, 
quail, swans and pea fowl are bred for table purposes and there- 
fore may be included. 


Marketing Poultry and Eggs 

One cannot discuss the subject of marketing poultry with- 
out a brief treatment of their preparation for the market. In 
this country there is usually no separate branch of the industry 
devoted to the fattening process. However, in Europe the rear- 
ing and fattening is done in entirely different places. In this 
country, the poultry raiser merely changes the diet and habit of 
the birds. Some advocate the small pen, others the crate method, 
while others contend that poultry allowed to run at large fatten 


Kee _ more readily and cheaper than those confined. At present, ex- 


me 


FOURTH QUARTER 139 


periments seem to show that birds confined in small pens, and 
allowed some exercise, produce better flesh when brought to 
the markets. The poultry of the U. S. is marketed in two ways; 
either live or dead: Both have their disadvantages. If sold 
alive, one can be sure that the fowl purchased is fresh, but there 
is the added trouble of killing and dressing, which unless plenty 
of feed and fresh water is furnished the chickens, there is apt to 
be a serious loss from shrinkage with the attendant loss of flavor 
and flesh. The inhuman way in which much of the live poultry 
is handled has caused many states and cities to pass laws in 
regard to the care of them while displayed for sale. 

If birds are killed before marketing, the utmost care should 
be taken to see that every possible rule of cleanliness is observed. 
Filth and dirt around any food is disgusting, but around meat it is 
positively dangerous, since it may lead to rapid decay of the 
flesh. All birds should be penned up and not fed for at least 
two hours before killing. This insures that the crop will be empty, 
as well as the intestines. The best way to kill the bird is to sever 
the main artery found in the roof of the mouth, then to hang the 
bird by the feet, head down, where it will quickly bleed to death. 
As soon as dead, the bird should be dry picked. Scalding may 
be resorted to if the bird is for home consumption, but is apt to 
give the skin a drawn, hard look. Care should be taken in re- 
moving the feathers that the skin is not torn. The animal heat 
should be driven out by cooling at once. Not to do so is to 
invite rapid decay. Some poultry men plump out the birds by 
putting them in cold water. This is not injurious if they remain 
but a few minutes, but any soaking until they swell beyond their 
- normal size is not only injurious, but fraudulent. If housewives 
would refuse to buy fowls so treated the practice would soon be 
. discontinued. The flesh of fowls so treated is apt to be whiter 
than that of fowls not so treated. The body will have a sleek, 
plump look, and the flesh will be hard to the touch. Decomposi- 
tion of such flesh is more sudden and sooner than that of birds 
not washed. As soon as the animal heat leaves the body “rigor 
mortis” sets in. This stiffens the flesh and tendons until they 
become hard. The fowl should not be used now for at least 
twelve hours, or until this has passed away. Great care should 
be taken not to use flesh which has begun to decompose, for 
decomposition is often the herald of ptomaines, virulent poisons. 
Some people argue that birds keep better drawn than undrawn. 
The writer prefers drawn birds, for the fact that the intestines 
contain more or less moist digested material which rapidly gives 
off its odor and soon taints the whole fowl. Birds if drawn, and 
rinsed with clean salt water, will keep sweet two or three days 
longer than undrawn birds. 


140 FOURTH QUARTER 


There is a widespread distrust of cold storage birds and © 
eggs. This is founded on real facts and unless great-care is 
taken in handling the cold storage products, they are unfit for 
human consumption. But if properly managed, cold storage 
fowl is not only healthful, but makes it possible for one to have 
the meat at less cost than one could obtain the fresh. 

A temperature of 50° F. will keep poultry sweet a week or 
more, but if intended for longer storage a dry temperature of 
34° F. or less is necessary. October till May are the usual cold 
storage months. Older fowls keep better in cold storage than do 
younger birds. Many of the delicate game birds do not keep well 
in any temperature. The main thing to know in buying cold 
storage products is how long they have been out of cold storage. 
Such products spoil much quicker than fresh ones, and if used 
at once are all right, but must not be used if they have been un- 
packed too long. 

Different methods are employed in packing cold storage 
products. Sometimes the birds are frozen before packing. This 
is done at a temperature of 5° to 10° F. and then kept at about 
30° F. However, most people hold that freézing destroys the 
fine flavor of poultry, and as frozen meats decompose very 
rapidly after thawing, ordinary cold storage is preferable. There 
are many things to note when selecting poultry. A good fresh 
bird will be well rounded, showing no bony angles around the 
breast bone. The legs should be short and plump. The skin 
should be clear yellow and free from blotches or dark spots. 
The flesh should give greatly when pressed by the finger. It 
should never be flabby or hard. A fresh bird will have soft, 
moist, limber feet and the eyes will be bright and full. If the 
bird is a cold storage one, its wings and legs will probably be 
close to the body because it has been packed in tightly with 
others. If fresh, its wings will hang in a natural position. The 
breast bone of a young fowl is easily bent. The feet of a young 
fowl are soft and smooth, but hard and rough in an old fowl. 
A young bird has short, sharp claws, but an old bird has long, 
blunt ones. Turkeys up to twelve months have black feet. Up 
to three years old they are pink; after this they turn a dull grey. 
Red feet are a sign of age in a pigeon. The flesh of the breast 
of a pigeon will show dark through the skin if the bird is an 
old one. 

In ducks and geese, the wind pipe furnishes the best test of 
age. In a young bird it is soft and flexible. In an old one it is 
hard and fixed. Sometimes the wings of turkeys, geese and 
ducks are left unplucked. When so left, they give a clue to 

% the age of the bird. If the quills at the tip are sharply pointed 
~ the bird is young, but if blunt it is probably old. The American 
a ee 


ee 


FOURTH QUARTER 141 


farmer is slowly but surely learning the folly of keeping an 
oversupply of cocks, and as they bring a lower price when put 
on>the market for food, the up-to-date poultry raiser usually 
caponizes them. The meat of capons is unexcelled for table use 
in flavor. Capons also take on flesh more rapidly and with less 
food than regular fowls. The meat is juicy and tender, and the 
body several pounds above normal chickens. The demand for 
capons is an increasing one in the American markets, and the wise 
poultryman is meeting the demand more fully each year. 

The marketing of eggs is not as complicated a matter as that 
of marketing poultry, yet the day has passed when the thrifty 
farmer will start to town with a market basket filled with eggs, 
and trust to luck, and the good roads movement that thew will 
all arrive safely. Many farmers now sell their eggs to hucksters 
who make weekly trips through the country buying the farmers’ 
produce. They are usually packed in crates holding twelve or 
more dozen. For retail trade in the city, paper cartons holding 
twelve eggs are used. Parcel post has opened up an avenue of 
marketing for many farmers, yet this has not been the success it 
was hoped it would be, owing to the care with which the eggs 
must be packed and the expense of sending back their empty 
containers. 

Note—Most farm boys and girls have or have had some 
experience in keeping poultry of some kind or other. Lead them 


to discuss thew experiences. Explain any dificulties they may 


have met and suggest possible improvement. Some poultry jour- 
nal should be kept on the school library table for reference. Have 
them discuss the various breeds, advantages and defects. Make 
the subject of real practical benefit to the students. 


Prices of Broilers; Fries; Hens; Eggs 


Broilers are chickens weighing around two pounds each, even 
less. They bring a high price in May or even June. Squab 
broilers are those weighing about 34 pound each. These bring 
$1.00 to $1.50 per pair. 

A spring or fry is a young soft-boned bird of either sex that 
weighs over two pounds. A hen is a female over one year old. 
It is difficult to give any scale of prices that will mean much. 
The season of the year, supply and demand, condition of fowl, 
and many other factors enter into the determining of the price. 
Fries vary from 30 to 80 cents, hens 25 to 45, while eggs vary 
according to the size, color, and season from 20 to 90 cents per 
dozen. 

Last year in New York City in December, 1924, eggs were 
quoted as follows: Fancy Whites, 76 to 82 cents; Browns, 57 to 
63 cents; Fresh extras, 54 to 55 cents; Firsts, 48 to 50 cents; 


142 FOURTH QUARTER 


Seconds, 42 to 46 cents; Refrigerator Extras, 38 to 39 cents; 
Refrigerator Firsts, 35 to 36 cents; No. 1 Dirties, 23 to 24 cents; 
Checks (cracked) 22 to 24 cents. 

In 1917 the average price on eggs was about 30 cents, and 
for dressed poultry 26. 


Other Poultry 


Turkeys, ducks, and geese are the other poultry usually 
raised on the Illinois farm. In 1910, Illinois ranked third in the 
United States in the value of her poultry, having $11,697,000. 
Iowa was at the head with $12,270,000, and Missouri second with 
$11,871,000. 


Comparative Study of Chicken, Duck, Goose, Turkey; Care of 


In shape, a duck is more like a goose having short legs and 
web feet, a long body and short tail, with very long neck and 
large heavy bill. Like geese, ducks are lovers of the water, 
but neither require swimming places, if plenty of clean fresh 
water is supplied, deep enough for the goose or duck to get its 
head in above the eyes. For some peculiar reason this seems 
essential. Both are very unlike the turkey in appearance or habits, 

The Pekin, Muscovy, and Indian Runner are the best breed 
suited to the farm purposes among the ducks. Among the 
various breeds of geese, the Gray Toulouse and White Emden 
are the standard breeds for general purposes. While both 
ducks and geese like water, their houses must be free from 
dampness and have good drainage. Like a chicken’s comb, their 
feet seem to suffer from the cold damp quarters. Ducks are 
more difficult to raise than geese, and require much more 
knowledge and care. They. require much feed and water and 
regular hours of attention. They seem to form habits that they 
find hard to give up. For instance, if they are not fed corn 
while young, many never learn to eat it, and few seem to like it. 
But if they are fed it while small, they find it their favorite feed. 
Unlike the hen the duck has no crop, and the food passes at 
once to the gizzard, hence it should in the main be of soft foods. 
Wheat bran, corn meal, beef scraps, alfalfa or other green food, 
with coarse sand or grit, should be mixed with water till moist 
but not wet and fed three times a day. 

A supply of oyster shells should be convenient, as well as 
plenty of clean water. 

Geese are much easier raised than ducks, in fact, it is a 
common saying that a gosling a week old is a grown bird as 
far as any care it may require is concerned. If left to itself with 
plenty of water and good forage, it will shift for itself. 


FOURTH QUARTER 143 


Their manure is very valuable, and should be collected 
from their houses at regular intervals. Their houses need be but 
little more than sheds, with litter on the floor. Geese are profit- 
able in that they graze on land otherwise unproductive. They 
require drinking water in abundance and unless they have a 
pond for swimming, should be watered from shallow fountains 
in which they can get but their bill. If larger, the water soon 
becomes exceedingly foul. 

Geese, unlike ducks and chickens, attain great ages, some 
living as long as 40 years, while frequently they live 15. They 
seem to retain their laying and hatching powers as long as 
they live. 

When selecting breeders beware of immature stock. 
Ganders three years of age are best. When pastures are short 
and geese must be fed, corn meal, bran, middlings, and scrap 
meat is recommended. Cooked vegetables, steamed clover, or 
vegetable parings should constitute at least 10% of the whole. 
Like chickens, geese require grit and oyster shells. 

Like chickens, turkeys require much more care than geese or 
ducks, especially the young. The Bronze is the most popular 
breed today, then comes the Narragansett. The general appear- 
ance of the turkey is to well known to need description. But 
the male it may be noted differs more from the female than do 
ducks or geese. They are also a larger bird, goblers going to 36 
Ibs. for standard to 50 pounds or over. Among white turkeys 
18 lbs is the standard size for hens and for cocks 28. 

After young turkeys are six weeks old they require little 
care or attention. Beware of inbreeding if you wish healthy 
young turkeys. New blood is vital in raising the young. The 
tom should be a year old and the hens two. With geese one 
gander to each three females is required, but one goblers to 
three or six hens is sufficient. Turkeys require much food 
and plenty of exercise. Do not keep them too fat. They do 
best when they roost in the open. Watch for vermin on the 
young and be sure their food is not sour or mouldy. Don’t over- 
feed or over crowd. 

Note Resemblance and Difference. Ducks and geese are 
more alike in body shape than chickens and turkeys. Their 
habits are also similar. However, ducks require more care than 
geese, and turkeys, more care than any of the fowls. This applies 
mainly to the young. 

Like chickens, turkeys, suffer more from vermin than do 
ducks or geese. They are also more affected by damp weather. 
They require a better quality of feed than chickens do also. 
The poults are seed eaters, not slop eaters. Bugs, worms, seeds 
and such are their natural food and less apt to cause bowel 


144 FOURTH QUARTER 


trouble than is the feeding of concentrated wet foods. Some 
breeders stay with a grain diet. Corn meal and skim milk curds 
are both bad for young fowls. Milk fed judiciously is all right. 
Stale bread soaked in milk, then pressed dry is good for the first 
few days. This should be sprinkled with fine grit. A small 
amount of hard boiled egg is good. Fine oatmeal or finely 
cracked oats and corn and granulated beef scraps are excellent. 
Meat must be sweet, for tainted meat starts bowel trouble in 
young turkeys. Green stuffs should be at least one-half of the 
fare. Provide plenty of water and add finely ground charcoal to 
the food. 

Turkey hens do not as a rule care for their young as well 
as chicken hens, and the young turks seem-much slower to learn 
how to eat than do either chickens or ducks. 


Value 


Like chickens, the value of ducks, geese or turkeys depend 
or various factors including supply and demand and seasons of 
the year. Ducks, turkeys and geese perhaps bring the best price 
during the late fall and winter, the demand falling off with the 
approach of spring. Turkeys bring the best price—the price in 
city markets last year at Christmas time being 50 to 60 cents 
per pound. , 

Geese bring from 14 to 30 cents per pound. Ducks slightly 
higher in price, depend upon whether theyyare milk, flesh, or 
grain fed. + 


Season of Marketing 


There is the greatest demand for ducks, turkeys, and geese 
around the holidays. The demand for chicken is more constant 
throughout the year. 


Value of Feathers 


Too often the value of the feathers is ignored by the poultry 
raiser. Exclusive of ornamental feathers the United States 
imports over $2,000,000 worth.yearly. Geesé feathers are the 
most valuable and bring about one dollar a pound. Since geese 
may be plucked two or three times a year, one can easily see how 
they may be a source of income. Dry picked feathers sell for 
more than those of scalded fouls, and white for more than 
colored. Duck feathers rank next to goose, though carefully 
selected white turkey feathers will bring as good a price. The 
body feathers from white chickens come next to duck feathers. 

The down from geese often sells as high as $1.50° per 
pound, and is used in making quilts, cushions, etc. Tail and 


FOURTH QUARTER 145 


~ wing feathers are used for dusters and screens, feather boas are 
made from hackle feathers: Some are used in the manufacture 
of imitation birds. Peacock feathers are in demand for orna- 
mental purposes. 

White chicken feathers are worth about 18 cents per pound. 
Colored about 6 cents per pound. 


BIRDS 


Identification of Common Birds 


The study of birds and their habits is one of the most fasin- 
ating bits of work the average boy or girl can undertake. The 
country child has a great advantage over the average city child 
in this work, but since parks are becoming more numerous. 
the city child has also an excellent opportunity to become 
acquainted with the feathered friends of the woods. Two 
things are necessary in studying birds—unlimited patience and 
some help—either that of a bird lover or a good bird .guide. 
A field glass is also of great aid but the average keen eyed 
youngster will not find this absolutely necessary. 

Many arbitrary divisions have been made in classifying 
birds. They are often divided into the following main groups: 
(1) diving birds; (2) swimmers; (3) wading birds such as 
herons and storks; (4) shore birds such as snipes and sandpip- 
ers; (5) the Gallinaceous birds such as grouse, partridge, and 
bob-whites; (6) Columbae, including pigeons and doves; (7) 
birds of prev such as hawks, owls, and vultures; (8) wood 
peckers; (9) goatsuckers, and (10) perching birds. They are 
also other minor divisions which are little known in the region 
of Illinois. The first four divisions will not be treated here 
because they are not familiar to this locality. 

The Bob-White is a Gallinaceous bird, and one of the 
most celebrated game birds in the U. S., where it is found from 
N. Dakota east and from Texas north to the British provinces. 
It’s nest is made in sheltered spots along the road side of dried 
grasses. Ten to twenty pure white eggs are laid each season, 
but rainy weather often destroys many of the young. They are 
familiar to most farm boys and girls by their short legs and 
necks, brown compact bodies and white throats. All the birds 
mentioned in this work may not be found in this state, but 
are given because native to the region east of the Mississippi, 
south of Canada, and west of the Gulf states, although they 
may also be found in other regions. 

mong the birds of prey found in this region are the (1) 
Turkey vulture (2) Marsh Hawk; (3) Sate Hawk; (4) 


146 FOURTH QUARTER 


Red Tailed Hawk; (5) Rough Legged Hawk; (6) Bald Eagle; 
(7) Barn Owl; (8) Great Gray Owl, and (9) the Screech Owl. 
The Turkey Vulture is about thirty inches long, blackish 
brown, naked red head. In flight the tips of its wings curve 
upward. Two eggs are laid for one sitting in hollow stumps, 
under logs, between rocks, etc. The eggs are creamy or bluish 
white spotted with brown and faint markings of lavender. 

The Marsh Hawk is very abundant in many sections. For 
two years the bird is reddish brown, after this it becomes very 
light colored. Both plumages show a white patch on the rump. 
Field mice form a large part of their diet. Their nests are 
made in swamp ground. It is usually well lined with grasses 
and rushes. They lay from four to seven pale bluish white eggs. 

The Red Tailed Hawk is best known in the east, where it 
is called “Hen Hawk.” It is one of the handsomest of the 
larger hawks, and the adult is easily distinguished because of 
its reddish brown tail. Snakes, mice and lizards are its main 
diet and very occasionally young chickens. The nest is made 
in tall trees of sticks, weeds and trash. The eggs are two to four 
in number, white and sometimes spotted with various shades of 
brown. 

The Rough Legged Hawks are heavy, large birds of prey, 
with completely feathered legs. It is about 22 inches long and 
has a whiteish head, neck, breast and tail. The remainder is a 
blackish. brown. The nests are usually built in trees. They 
lay three eggs, bluish white in color, splashed with dark brown. 

The Bald Eagle is found sparingly throughout all of North 
America. It is most abundant along the Atlantic coast. It has 
a white head and a white tail after it becomes three years old. 
Before this time they are blackish. It is about thirty-four 
inches in length and has a wing expansion of seven feet or 
more. Birds two years old are larger than the adults. Fish is 
their main food, which they often steal from the Osprey, car- 
rion and ducks, which they catch on the wing. Their nests are 
massive structures of sticks, usually in tall trees. They usually 
lay two white eggs. 

The Barn Owl is very common in the southern states. It 
is one of the lightest colored of the owls and has a long pecu- 
liarly hooded face, from which it is often called monkey faced 
Owl. Its plumage is yellowish buff, slightly barred with black. 
It will nest in almost any concealed place, hollow trees, barns, 
or holes in barrels. It lays from four to six pure white eggs. 

The Great Gray Owl is the largest of American Owls, being 
about twenty-six inches in height. Its plumage is very light 
and fluffy, dark grey in color, mottled with white. The face is 


FOURTH QUARTER 147 


large, the eyes small and yellow. Their nests are usually built 
in pine trees of sticks. They lay from two to four white eggs 
in May or June. 

The Screech Owi has two color phases, being a yellowish 
brown or grey, and black and white. They nest in hollow trees, 
especially in decayed apple trees. They are also found in aban- 
doned barns. Mice, meadow moles and small birds are their 
chief diet. Their eggs are five to eight in number and are white. 

Among the Woodpecker family we find the (1) Hairy 
Woodpecker, (2) Yellow Billed Sapsucker, and (3) the Red- 
headed Woodpecker. ; 

The Hury Woodpecker is found from North Carolina to 
Canada and east from the plains. They lay their eggs in holes 
in tree trunks or limbs. They usually use the same hole year 
after year. The eggs are glossy white, from three to six in num- 
ber. They are nine inches long and have white outer tail feath- 
ers which are unspotted. They are similar to the Downy 
Woodpecker, which has the outer white tail feathers, spotted 
with black. The Hairy Woodpecker is much more shy than the 
Downy Woodpecker which often associates with other birds. 

The Yellowbellied Sapsucker is one of the most handsomely 
marked of the woodpecker family. They are easily recognized 
by the red crown and throat (white on the female) bordered 
with black, with yellowish underparts. These are slightly 
injurious to cultivated trees, but are the only species of the 
woodpecker family that are. The eggs are four to seven, glossy 
white, and laid in holes in trees usually far above the ground. 

The Red-headed Woodpecker is a beautiful species with 
a bright red head, neck, and breast, glossy blue-black back, 
wings and tail, and white underparts, rump and secondaries. 
It makes its nest in trees, telegraph poles, or under the eaves 
of buildings. They are rather quarrelsome among themselves, 
and with other birds. They sometimes tear down the nests of 
other birds and destroy the young. They feed upon ants, 
larvae, fruits and berries. They lay four to eight white eggs 
in May and June. 

The Northern Flicker is a variety of large woodpecker, 
sometimes known as a Yellowhammer. They have a brownish 
tone to the plumage, barred on the backs, and spotted on the 
breast with black. Some have a golden yellow lining to wings 
and tail. It has a red crescent on the nape and the male has 
black moustache matks. They have the undulating flight com- 
mon to all woodpeckers and show the white rump patch .con- 
spicuously when flying. They lay five to ten very glossy eggs 
anywhere they can make a hole for them. 


148 FOURTH QUARTER 


Goalsuckers are long winged birds, with small bills, but 
very large mouths. Their plumage is mottled black, brown and 
white. Their food is mainly insects which they catch upon the 
wing. 

The Whip-poor-will, a Goatsucker, is a species well known 
by sound, but scarcely at all by sight. It rarely leaves its place 
of hiding before dark. It is much like the night hawk from 
which it may be distinguished by the absence in the wings of 
any white markings, and by the white tip of the outer tail 
feathers of the Whip-poor-will. They fly very quietly through 
the air after nightfall. Their two eggs are laid on the ground 
among dead leaves usually in dense woods. They are grayish, 
white. or cream color, marbled with pale brown and grey and 
with faint markings of lilac. 

The Night Hawk is a species of the Goatsucker, much like 
the Whip-poor-will. It does not have the mouth bristles as the 
latter bird does, but it has a forked tail with a white band near 
the end, and with a white band across the primaries, the latter 
mark showing very plainly during flight. They are very com- 
mon in the cities as well as in the country, where they lay their 
eggs upon gravel roofs. The eggs are grayish in color, marbled, 
bletched and spotted with darker shades of grey. 

The Humming Bird belongs to the same general family 
as the goatsuckers. The ruby throated humming bird 
is the only humming bird found east of the Mississippi. 
It is between three and four inches long, with green upper 
parts, and a bright red throat. It makes a beautiful nest 
of plant fibers and down. This is covered with green moss, 
and attached to a limb of a tree usually well out of reach from 
the ground. It lays two white eggs in May or June. 

The birds most common and most numerous in this locality 
belong to the Perching Birds, or the order of passers. 

Of the Perching Birds, the Phoebe or Bridge Bird is one 
of our most useful. It is so called from its habits of building 
in or around bridges. The nests are made of moss, mud and 
grass, and lined with feathers. They are greyish in color and 
very useful in that they feed on insects and beetles almost 
entirely. Four or five eggs are laid each year. 

The Pee-wee is one of the best known birds in open woods, 
where it call of pee-a-wee or pee-wee may be heard. Their 
nests are built on the limbs of trees of fine grasses and covered 
on the exterior with lichens. They are very shallow and resem- 
ble a knot on the limb. They lay three or four cream colored 
eggs, spotted at the large end, in a wreath reddish brown and 
lavender. 


FOURTH QUARTER 149 


The Prairie Horned Lark has a pale yellow throat with a 
line of white over the eye and forehead. In the Mississippi 
valley they are the most common of the nesting birds, and build 
on the ground in meadows and cultivated fields. The nests are 
made of grasses lined with feathers or horse hairs. They raise 
two or three broods each season. They lay three or four olive 
buff eggs, thickly sprinkled with drab and lavender. 

The Blue Jay is one of the prettiest of the Jay birds and is 
too well known to need description. It is a cruel, quarrelsome 
bird. In fall, winter, and spring they feed on chestnuts, berries, 
seeds, insects, grains, lizards, etc., but during the summer they 
feed on the eggs and young of other birds. They usually build 
near the ground, almost anywhere, the nests being made of 
twigs and fine rootlets. In May, they lay four to six eggs of a 
greenish buff color, spotted with olive brown. 

The Crow is very shy and cunning, and is the sworn enemy 
of every farmer. They build their nests preferably in the tops 
of tall pines. The nests are made of sticks and lined with root- 
lets. The eggs from four to seven in number range from a 
bluish white in color to a light green, and are spotted with 
shades of brown and lilac. 

? The Bobolink is well known in the East where his sweet 

~ call often given on the wing is much loved. During May and 
June, he sings all day long to his sparrow-like mate, sitting on 
her eggs concealed in the meadow grass. They are sociable 
birds and often several pair will nest in the same meadow. The 
nests are built in a hollow of the ground, lined with grass, and 
the top slightly arched to conceal the eggs, which are a greyish 
white, spotted with grey, brown and lilac. They are four or 
six in number and are laid in June. 

The Red Winged Blackbird is a very familiar bird around 
grain fields in the fall where they often do much damage. They 
also do much good at other seasons because of the weed seed 
and insects they destroy. Their nests are made of grasses 
placed in bushes in swamps or over water, or again on the 
ground in clumps of grasses. The eggs number three to five, 
are bluish white and boldly spotted with dark brown and pur- 
ple. The body of the bird is black with red wings with white 
markings. 

The Meadow Lark is more frequently heard than ‘seen. 
His note is a high pleasing flute-like whistle, with variations. 
It has a yellow breast with a black crescent. Their nests are 
skillfully concealed on the ground among the tall grasses of the 
meadow. In May or June they lay four to six eggs, white, 
speckled with reddish brown and purplish. 


150 FOURTH QUARTER 


The Baltimore Oriole is easily distinguished by its orange 
flame color, and its black head. Elms are the favorite places 
for their nests, which hang like tiny swinging baskets. They 
are often five inches wide by ten long, and are built of fiber and 
bits of string. The eggs are white, streaked with black, brown 
or grey. 

The Purple Finch is a very sweet songster. They breed in 
orchard trees, or evergreens, usually about three-fourths the 
way up. The nests are made of fine weeds and grasses and 
lined with horse hair. The eggs, usually laid in June, are 
greenish blue, spotted with dark brown. 

The Goldfinch is one of our sweetest songsters from May 
until September. They are the latest of our nesting birds, 
building in late August or September. The nests are built in 
bushes, generally within fifteen feet of the ground, of fiber 
plants and thistle down, firmly woven together. They lay from 
three to six plain bluish white eggs. They are yellow in color, 
with dark wings spotted with white. The tail is dark as is also 
the top of the head. There are at least twenty-five varieties of 
the sparrow family in the United States. Because the English 
sparrow has proved such a nuisance, we have come to condemn 
all the rest of the sparrow tribe. The English sparrow was im- 
ported from England, and increases in such alarming numbers 
that a bounty was finally put on its head. They build unsightly 
nests of loose straw anywhere, and lay four to eight eggs in a 
set, with four to eight sets a season. Their eggs are whitish, 
spotted with grey and black. . 

The Vesper Sparrow is a streaked greenish buffy and white 
bird distinguished by its chestnut shoulders and white tail feath- 
ers. Their loud piping whistle may often be heard in weedy 
pastures in the East . They build in the hollow of the ground, 
lined with grasses. The eggs, four to five in number, are dull 
white, blotched with light brown and lavender tints. 

The Lark Sparrow is a handsome bird with the sides of the 
throat and a spot on the breast black, while the sides of the crown 
and ear: particles are chestnut. They are very sweet singers and 
always welcome. They usually build in the ground, but some- 
times in bushes or even in trees. The nests are made of grasses 
and weeds, and the eggs, which are usually laid in May are white, 
marked at the large end with black lines and spots. 

The Chipping Sparrow is sociable not only with other. birds, 
but also with man, unless a locality is overrun with English 
sparrows. You will find these tame birds in vines, bushes and 
trees. They are a reddish brown bordered by black, with a 
black line running through the eye. Their nests may be found 


* 


FOURTH QUARTER 151 


almost anywhere and are made of fine grasses and weed stems, 
lined with hair. They lay three to five eggs of a bluish green, 
slightly speckled at the large end with brown and lavender. 

The Field Sparrow is found abundantly along road sides in 
thickets and barren hillsides. They build their nests of stems of 
weeds and grasses, either in trees, bushes, or on the ground. They 
are the bird whose high piping notes are most often heard in the 
hot, sultry summer days. Their eggs are pale bluish white, 
speckled with yellowish brown, and greyish purple. 

The Song Sparrow is abundant, especially in eastern locali- 
ties, where he is a great favorite. They are sweet and persistent 
singers along roadsides, pastures, gardens and door yards, if 
there are no English sparrows near. They build either on the 
ground, or in bushes. The nests are made of grass and weed 
stems, lined with fine grasses or horse hair. They lay two or 
three sets of eggs each season, three to five at each set. They are 
white or greenish white, and sometimes are very heavily blotched 
with many shades of brown. Others are almost clear. 

The Swamp Sparrow is a common dark colored bird which 
frequents swampy places, where it breeds. Because of its shy 
habits it is often unknown in the localities where it really is 
abundant. Its nest is usually built on the ground in places where 
walking is uncertain and treacherous. The eggs are much like 
those of the Song Sparrow, but are usually darker, more clouded 
and smaller. | 

The Cardinal is one of our most beautiful birds. It is firey 
red and crested, and are found around dwellings as frequently as 
in wooded localities. Their nests are nearly always within ten 
feet of the ground, built in bushes, branches, vines, or brush 
heaps, of twigs, coarse grasses, weeds, bits of bark, or leaves, and 
lined with fine grass or hair. They often lay two or three sets of 
eggs each season, with three to five white or pale bluish white 
eggs in each set. 

The Rose Breasted Grosbeak is a beautiful black and white 
bird with a rosy red breast and under wing coverts. It is one of 
the most pleasing of our songsters. They nest in bushes and trees, 
usually six to twenty feet from the ground, and seem to prefer 
scrubby apple trees. They lay three to four eggs, greenish blue 
in color, spotted at the larger end with reddish brown. 

The Indigo Bunting is a rich indigo on the head and neck, 
shading off into a blue or bluish green on the upper and under 
parts. In some localities they are very abundant in thickets, 
along roadsides, and open woods where their sweet song is heard. 
It resembles somewhat the song of the Goldfinch. Their nests 
are built at low elevations in thickets and vines and in very sub- 
stantial structures, of leaves, grasses and weeds, being lined with 


152 FOURTH QUARTER 


fine grasses or hair. The eggs are a pale bluish white and are 
laid in June or July. 

The Blue Grosbeak is smaller than the Rose Breasted 
Grosbeak and is a deep blue with the wings and tail blackish, 
and the lesser coverts and tips of the greater coverts, chestnut. 
It nests in low bushes or vines, and is fairly common in its range. 
The nest is made of rootlets and weed stalks, grasses, and 
sometimes leaves. The three or four eggs are bluish white and 
unmarked. 

The Dickcissel is a sparrow like bunting with a yellow 
breast patch, yellow line over eye and on side of throat. The 
throat is black, chin white, and wing coverts chestnut. They 
are very common in bushy pastures and on the prairies. Their 
song is simple and fersistent, and usually very welcome as it 
is most often heard on very hot days when other birds are quiet. 
Their nests are built almost anywhere that suits their fancy, on 
the ground, in clumps of grass, in bushes, clover pastures, thistles 
or low trees. The nests are built of weeds, grasses, leaves, and 
rootlets lined with fine grasses. The bluish white eggs are three 
to five in number. 

The Scarlet Tanager is a beautiful scarlet and black bird. 
The body is red while the wings and tail are black. They breed 
in orchards, woodlands, or small pine groves. They are quiet 
birds, but their low warbling song is heard at a great distance and 
is readily recognized because of its peculiarity. They nest upon — 
horizontal limbs or poles, usually four to twenty feet above 
ground. Their nests are frail structures of twigs, weeds, and 
rootlets. The eggs are greenish blue, spotted with various shades 
of brown. | 

The Purple Martin is a large lustrious steely-blue swallow, 
which readily adapts itself to its surroundings. Throughout the 
East beautiful bird houses provided by land owners are found, 
often modeled after modern residences, and housing twenty to 
thirty pairs of martins. Soap boxes seem to provide as choice 
nesting places and in them they make their nests of weeds, 
grasses, mud and feathers. In June and July they lay four to six 
white eggs. 

The Cliff Swallow may be easily recognized by its brownish 
throat and breast, whitish forehead and buff rump. They build 
very peculiar nests, often flask shaped. It is made of mud and 
fastened to the face of a cliff or under the eaves of a building. 
The entrance to the nest is small, but the nest itself is rounded. 
The eggs are creamy white, spotted with brown. 

The Barn Swallow is the most beautiful and graceful of 
the swallow family. It flys in long, graceful sweeps, curves and 
turns, its lengthened outer tail feathers streaming behind. They 


FOURTH QUARTER 153 


nest in sheds, barns, or wherever they will not be disturbed. Their 
nests are made of mud and attached to rafters. The outside of 
the nest is rough, but the inside is warmly lined with feathers. 
Their eggs cannot be distinguished from those of the Cliff 
Swallow. 

The Tree Swallow or White Bellied Swallow is vivacious 
and active. It nests around houses, either in the city or the 
country. If English sparrows are kept away, they will nest in 
homes provided by man. Their nests are made of straws and 
grasses, lined with feathers. The eggs are four to six in number, 
and plain white. 

The Cedar Wax IVing is a very gregarious bird and usually 
goes with others in large flocks. During the breeding season 
these split up into smaller groups and nest in groves, orchards, 
or in almost any kind of tree. The nests are often quite bulky, 
being made of string, grasses, strips of bark, mosses, etc. The 
eggs are dull greyish blue in color, speckled with blackish brown. 
They are often known as Cherry Birds because of their great 
fondness for cherries, both wild and cultivated. They are also 
fond of berries and insects, which they catch upon the wing. 
Their only notes are a strange lisping sound, often barely audible. 

The Shrikes belong to the Laniidae family. The Loggerhead 
Shrike is greyish above and white below. It is about nine inches 
in length. It has black wings, tail, and ear patches sharply de- 
fined. It has white outer tail feathers and primaries. It nests in 
hedges or heavy brush, preferably thorn bushes. Their nests are 
mere piles of rubbish. In May, they lay four or five eggs. They 
are bold and cruel birds and feed upon insects, rodents and 
small birds, in the chase of which they show great skill. 

The Red Eyed Vireo is a most persistent songster and fre- 
quents groves, open woods, or roadsides. Their eyes are brown, 
scarcely more red than those of any other species. Their nests 
are swung from the forks of trees, usually within ten feet of 
the ground. Their nests are so well built they often hang for 
several seasons. Their three or four eggs are usually laid in 
May or June and are white, slightly speckled with a blackish 
brown. The Cowbird often lays its eggs in the Vireo’s nest. 

Fhe Warbling Vireo is not as well known as the former, 
but is quite as abundant. Their nests are smaller and placed 
higher above ground. Their song is more musical and sweeter 
than the former. 

The Yellow Throated Vireo is wholly unlike any others of 
the Vieros. It has a bright yellow throat and breast, the upper 
parts are greenish, while the wings and tail are grey. The latter 
has two white bars. The eggs are four or five in number, pinkish 


154 FOURTH QUARTER 


or creamy white, and speckled at the larger end with reddish 
brown. The nests are basket shaped affairs, often beautifully 
made and covered with lichens. 

The White Eyed Vireo has white eyes, is yellowish green 
on the sides.and with two prominent bars across the wings. They 
have no particular song, but a strange medley of notes resembling 
those of the Shrike. They nest in tangled thickets near the 
ground. The nests are larger and not always suspended. They 
lay three or four eggs in May or early June. They are white, 
sparingly speckled with brown. 

The Warblers are the most beautiful, useful and interesting 
birds that we have. They are useful in that they feed largely 
upon injurious insects. They are very active, always flitting from 
branch to branch, and showing their plumage to the best ad- 
vantage. Their songs are simple but effectively delivered, and 
their nests are clever works of architecture. 

The Black and White Warbler is usually seen creeping along 
branches much in the same manner of a Nuthatch. They are 
of great value to man. Their nests are placed on the ground in 
swamps or woods. ‘They are built of strips of bark and grass, 
placed among leaves, usually by a stone, stump, or fallen tree. 
They lay three to five eggs, white, finely speckled with reddish 
brown. . 

The Worm Eating Warbler can always be identified by the 
three light buff and two black stripes on the crown, and narrower 
black stripes around the eye. They feed largely on the ground, 
among dead leaves. The nest is made of leaves, grasses and 
rootlets, lined with hair or fine grasses, usually placed under 
the shelter of some small bush. In June or July they lay three 
to six white eggs marked with chestnut or lavender. 

The Yellow Warbler is a common species that is wholly 
yellow, being more or less greenish on wings and tail. The male 
is streaked on the sides with chestnut. They nest anywhere in 
trees and bushes, in woods, parks, or dooryards. The nests are 
usually placed in upright forks of trees and is made of fibers, 
fine grasses woven compactly together, and lined with plant down 
and hair. They lay in May or June greenish white eggs speckled 
with brown and lilac. 

The Cerulean Warbler is a beautiful bird, light blue-gray 
above, streaked with black on the back, white below, with a 
grayish-blue band on the breast and streaks on the sides. They 
have two wide white wing bars and spots on the outer tail 
feathers. They build their nests usually in the forks of trees 
twenty or more feet from the ground. The nests are made of 
fibers, rootlets, etc., lined with hair. The eggs are white or a pale) 
bluish white, speckled with reddish brown. 


FOURTH QUARTER 155 


The Chestnut Sided Warbler may be readily known by the 
white underspots and the broad chestnut stripe on the flank, and 
yellow crown. They live in low brushes in open woods or 
pastures, nesting usually within three feet of the ground. The 
nests are often concealed beneath the leaves in the tops of small 
bushes. The nests are made of grasses, weed stems, and some 
fibers, but their nests lack the wooly appearance of the Yellow 
Warblers. Their eggs are white or creamy white, speckled with 
brown and grey. 

The Bay Breasted Warbler has the crown, throat and sides 
a rich chestnut, underparts white, forehead and face black. They 
choose coniferous trees in swampy places for their nests, making 
them of rootlets, bark shreds and placing them in horizontal forks 
five to twenty feet above the ground. The three or four eggs are 
laid in late May or June, are white, usually heavily spotted with 
amber, reddish brown, or gray. . 

The Black Poll Warbler is black and white and has a solid 

black cap. The underparts are white, streaked with black on 
the sides. While they bear some resemblance to the Black and 
White Warbler, they do not have the creeping habits of that 
species. They nest in stunted pines or spruces, making their 
nests at low elevations of rootlets and lichens, lined with feathers. 
The eggs are a dull white, splotched with neutral tints. 
J The Sycamore Warbler has grey upper parts with two white 
‘wing bars, the throat and breast are yellow, the cheeks and the 
streaks on the sides are black. The nests are usually on horizontal 
branches of sycamores and are three to five in number, pale 
greenish white, speckled at the larger end with reddish brown 
or grey. ; 

The Oven Bird is sometimes known as the Golden Crowned 
Thrush, because of its brownish orange crown bordered with 
black. They live only in the woods, building their nests on the 
ground, arching over the top with rootlets and leaves, the nest 
itself being made of grasses and leaves. The eggs are four to 
six in number, white, glossy and spotted with brown and lilac. 

The Mocking Bird nests about houses, open fields, woods 
and roadways. Their nests are bulky affairs of twigs, leaves and 
grasses, placed in trees and bushes at low elevations. The eggs, 
three to five in number, are dull greenish blue, spotted with brown. 

The Cat Bird is a well known mimic and frequents open 
woods, bridges, and hillsides. Their nests are usually low in trees 
and constructed similarly to the Mocking Birds. Their eggs are 
laid in May or June, three to five in number, are a bright bluish 
green in color, and are unmarked. 

The Brown Thrasher is a handsome songster, is often found 
nesting near the Catbird. The nests are similar, but that of the 


156 FOURTH QUARTER 


Thrasher is usually more bulky. They lay three to five eggs in 
May or June. The eggs are white or greenish, profusely spotted 
with brown. 

The Carolina Wren is a well known loud voiced songster 
found along streams, walls, brush heaps or thickets. They nest 
in almost any suitable nook or corner, in hollow trees, in stumps, 
around buildings, in bird boxes, in brush or bushes. The nest is 
made of all sorts of trash and if exposed is arched over. There 
are often several broods raised each season. The eggs are white, 
speckled with brown and. lavender. 

The House Wren is a familiar noisy little fellow, and is the 
most common of the wren family. They are found in woods, 
swamps, fields, pastures, around houses, in bird houses, or in 
any nook that may suit them. They lay from three to nine eggs 
in a set, and frequently three sets a year. The eggs are pinkish 
white, but are so thickly dotted with brown, that they appear to 
be almost a plain salmon color. They fill any cavity they choose’ 
for a nest with twigs, grass, feathers or hair, and here lay 
their eggs. 

The White Breasted Nuthatch is a creeper, and runs up 
and down trunks of trees. Their plumage is grey and black 
above with a black crown and white below. They nest in holes 
in trees, usually in deep woods. They build at any elevation from 
the ground, often in deserted woodpecker’s holes. They line the 
cavity with feathers and strips of bark. During April and May, 
they lay four to nine white eggs, speckled with brown and lilac. 

The Red Breasted Nuthatch has reddish brown underparts 
and a black stripe through the eye. They lay four to six white 
eggs spotted with brown. 

The Tufted Titmouse has a greyish crest and upper parts 
and is white beneath with brownish sides and black forehead. 
These noisy birds nest in natural cavities or holes left by wood- 
peckers. They are found at any elevation, and line the bottom 
of the hole with leaves, bark, or hair, and during April to May 
lay five to eight eggs, speckled with brown. 

The Chickadees are the favorites with almost everybody 
of all North American birds. They breed in holes of trees, in 
orchards or woods and in bird boxes. They line the hole with 
fine grasses and feathers, and in May or June lay five to eight 
white eggs dotted with brown. 

The Carolina Chickadee has little or no white edging on the — 
wing coverts. Otherwise they are much like the above. 

The Ruby Crowned Kinglet is about 4% inches long. It 
has a partly concealed patch of red on the head, not bordered 
by black. They build their nests in coniferous trees, any height 


FOURTH QUARTER 157 


from the ground. They lay four to nine eggs, creamy white, 
flecked with brown. , 

The Blue Grey Gnatcatcher is a graceful bird, blue grey 
above, with a black forehead, central trail feathers and white 
underparts. They usually build at a good distance from the 
ground. The nests are made of plant fibers and down, lined with 
cottony substance and hair, and covered on the outside with 
lichens to match the limb on which it hangs. The eggs are bluish 
white, speckled with chestnut. — 

The Wood Thrush has a brightly spotted breast and is one 
of the most handsome of the Thrushes. They breed in thickets 
and damp woods. Their nests of leaves, straw and grasses are 
usually placed in the low trees, four to ten feet from the ground. 
They*are rough looking bulky structures. During May or June 
they lay three or four greenish blue eggs of about the shade of a 
Robin’s. 

The Robin nests in trees, in orchards, woods, around houses, 
or in almost any conceivable place. The nest is made of grasses, 
firmly cemented together with mud, and lined with fine grasses. 
Their eggs are bluish green, and may be found any time from 
May until July or even August, since they raise several broods a 
season. 

The Blue Bird usually builds in cavities of trees within 20 
feet of the ground in bird boxes, or in any suitable crevice they 
may find around buildings, provided the English sparrow is not 
allowed to bother them. They begin to lay in April when they 
lay three to six pale bluish white eggs. They raise several 
broods each season. The cavities are usually lined with grasses 
and feathers. 

NotE—The above brief outline is by no means a complete 
study of the birds of the neighborhood. If from it the student 
is led to identify even a few of our common birds, its mission will 
have been accomplished. It 1s merely suggestive and it is hoped 
that the students will be interested enough to continue the work - 
farther, and secure one or more of the many excellent bird books 
or guides now on the market. ) 


Bird Groups; Permanent; Summer and Winter Residents; 
Migratory Visitors 


Our birds may be grouped under the three heads—per- 
manent, summer, or winter birds. The migratory visitors are 
really but temporary residents—that is they stop en-route as they 
are going somewhere else in their travels North and South. 

We will list the permanent residents first. The ones marked 
thus * are most common. 


158 FOURTH QUARTER 


1. Bob-White. 2. Ruffed Grouse. 3. Red Shouldered Hawk. 
4. Red Tailed Hawk. 5. Sparrow Hawk. 6. Cooper’s Hawk. 
7. Sharp-shinned Hawk. 8. Screech Owl. 9. Barred Owl. 10. 
Great Horned Owl. 11. Long-eared Owl. 12. Short-eared Owl. 
*13. American Crow. *14. Blue Jay. 15. Flicker. *16. Meadow 
Lark. *17. Downy Woodpecker. *18. Hairy Woodpecker. *19. 
English Sparrow. 20. Purple Finch. *21. Song Sparrow. *22. 
Goldfinch. *23. Chickadee. *24. White-breasted Nuthatch. 
25. Cedar Waxwing. *26. Blue Bird. 

The winter visitors are those which come in the fall and 
remain until spring. They include: 

1. Saw-whet Owl. 2. Prairie Horned Owl. *3. Junco. 
*4. Tree Sparrow. *5. White-throated Sparrow. 6. Redpoll. 
7. American Crossbill. 8. White-winged Crossbill. 9. Pink 
Grosbeak. 10. Pine Grosbeak. 11. Siskin. 12. Northern Shrike. 
13. Snow Bunting. 14. Winter Wren. *15. Brown Creeper. 
16. Red-breasted Nuthatch. *17. Golden Crowned Knight. *18. 
Hermit Thrush. 

The summer birds are too numerous to mention. Most of 
them have been discussed earlier, and include Blackbirds, Doves, 
*Robins, *Phoebe, Warblers, *Swallows, *Thrushes, Martins. 
Sapsuckers, Tanagers, Nighthawk, Whip-poor-will, Woodpeck- 
ers, Buntings, *Vireos, *Wrens, Cuckoo, Humming Birds, 
*Orioles, *Bobolinks, Grosbeaks, and a host of others. 


Characteristics of Common Bird Families; Thrush, Black Bird, 
Flycatcher, Woodpecker, Shore and Swimming Birds 
Sparrow Family; Mocking Birds; Birds of Prey 


The Thrushes and Bluebirds belong to the Turdidae family 
of the order Passers. They are beautiful birds, and include some 
of our best known garden and orchard birds and several beautiful 
songsters. It is a distinguishing mark of the family that the 
first primary is short, never longer than one-fourth as long as the 
longest. 

The Blackbird belongs to the family Icteridae. To this 
family the orioles also belong. They like the thrushes belong to 
the order of Passers or Perching Birds. This order contains 
19 families, about 150 species. Eighteen of the families are 
known as QOscines or singing birds, the other family as the 
Clamatores, or songless perchers. . This last is the Tyramridal 
family. The blackbird famliy’s members have a metallic black 
luster to their feathers often bright yellow heads as the yellow 
headed blackbird, or scarlet wings as the red-winged blackbird. 

The Fly Catchers are of the order Passers, suborder Clama- 
tores, and the Tyramidal family. They are all insect eaters of 
the best type,. most of the food being taken on the wing. The 


FOURTH QUARTER 159 


fly catcher will dart from his perch, atch it with an audible 
snap of the bill, return to the closen prey, where he swallows 
his lunch and looks for more. The flycatchers include the King 
bird, Crested Fly Catcher, Phoebe, Wood Pewee, and others. 
The Woodpecker is of the order of Pici, and of the family 
Picidae, which include the Sapsuckers, and flickers also. They 
are distinguishable for their habits of drumming and burrow- 
ing in trees. 


Sparrow Family 


The Sparrow family belongs to the order Passers and the 
family Fringillidae, which includes the finches, sparrows, bunt- 
ings, linnets, grosbeaks, crossbills, and longspurs. It is one of our 
largest bird families including 38 species. Its tail is closed, show- 
ing a distinct fork, double rounded, or closed tail square. 


Mocking Birds 
Mocking birds belong to the order Passers, and the family 
Mimidae, including the Thrashers, Mocking birds, etc. The 
Mocking bird is larger than the Catbird but resembles it in 
shape. It has ashy grey upper parts, and soiled white lower. 


Might“be confused with a shrike except for the shrike’s bill 
and head. 


Shore and Swimming Birds 

Order 1. Pygopodes—Diving Birds, including Grebes, 
Loons, Auks, and Murres. 

Order II. Longipennes—Long Winged Swimmers, includ- 
ing gull chasers, gulls, and terns. 

Order IV. Steganopodes—Swimmers, including cormo- 
rants, pelicans. 

Order V. Anseres—-swans, ducks, geese. 

Order VII. Herodiones—Herons, Ibises, -Storks. 

Order VIII. Paludicolae—Marsh Dwellers include cranes, 
rails, coots. 

Order IX. Limicolae or Shore Birds. These include the 
Phalaropes, Stilts and Avocets, Snipes, Sandpipers, Woodcock, 
Curlew, Plover. 

Most of these birds are not common in our state. If inter- 
ested consult Michigan Bird Life by Barrows, Michigan Agri- 
cultural College. 

(Note renumbering. Orders III and VI seem missing. 
They are not shore or swimming birds, so are not included.) 


Birds of Prey 


Birds of Prey belong to the order Raptores, and are dis- 
tinguishable by the shape of the bill and the feet. The bill is 
_ strongly hooked, with a cere. Usually three of the toes are 


——————————— 


160 FOURTH QUARTER 


turned forward permanently. Claws are long, curved, and 
sharp. With the exception of the American vultures, the claws 
are acute, and flexibly jointed to the toes. . 

The birds of prey include Buzzards or vultures, kites, 
hawks,. eagles, ospreys or fish hawks, owls. 


Value of Birds 


Birds around a home are valuable both because of their 
beauty and song, vet if these alone are not enough to make one 
encourage them to build near one’s door, then the realization 
of their economic value surely will. During their nesting 
season the old birds have to work early and late to supply | 
their young with food, and therefore make valuable insect 
destroyers. They feed largely upon grubs, cut worms and 
similar worms, which later in the season may cause the gard- 
ener or farmer much damage. Not long ago an actual count . 
was made of the number of chinch bugs and destructive worms 
found in a bird’s crop, and it totaled a surprisingly high num- 
ber. The American farmer is just waking up to the real value 
of his feathered friends and is acting accordingly. 


List of Ways in Which Birds are Valuable 


An examination of the contents of birds’ crops shows that 
70% to 90% of their food is ground infesting insects and larvae. 
Hence one of the greatest value of birds is that they help the 
farmer rid his fields of insect pests. Again, their grain food is 
largely the seeds of weeds, and thus they prevent the spread of 
noxious weeds. Some birds of prey aid by destroying small 
animals, such as the field mouse. During the winter they feed 
largely upon insects and larvae which they find under the barks 
of trees, thus lessening insect attacks the following year. Lists of 
pests eaten by birds are:—potato beetle, boll weevil, chinch bug, 
grasshopper, cutworm, caterpillars, moths, ants, bugs, and squash 
bugs. In addition to these there are many others too numerous 
to mention. | 


Appreciation of Birds 


It is only of recent years, that the farmer has begun to appre- 
ciate his feathered friends. He formerly thought only of the 
cherries, grain, or chickens that they ate. Now he begins to 
understand how valuable they are to him and is aiding them to 
build nests and raise their young. Birds like flowers, music, and 
the other beautiful things of life make life more worth living. 
The clear call of a bob-white, the trill of the dickscissel, or the 
song of the rising lark stir one as they come to him across a 


FOURTH QUARTER 161 


sunlit meadow. Few of us but has been gladdened by the sight 
of the first robin in the spring busily at work getting his home 
ready for the summer months. 


Bird Enemies 


The chief enemies of birds are cats and sling shots, or air 
rifles. It is a cat’s nature to’ prey on birds, and no matter how 
carefully they are watched, will satisfy their instinct at the first 
chance. The next enemy will cease to be an enemy when boys 
come to realize how wicked, cruel, and wasteful it is to shoot a 
bird. To see a little fluttering body fall to the ground a quivering 
mass of feather should sicken and shame any right-thinking boy. 
A few minutes before, the little creature had been busy helping 
rid the fields of pests and seeds, the next it is dead—a useless 
victim to some thoughtless boy. That little bird had as much 
right to live as the boy who shot it. This fact most states recog- 
nize now, and have passed stringent laws to protect our feathered 
friends. Some larger birds prey on smaller kinds, but cats and 
boys are the chief offenders against bird life. Snakes also eat 
young birds occasionally. 


Bird Conservation; Bird Houses; Material for Nests 


When we once realize that birds are of benefit around a 
home, the next question is how can they be attracted and cared 
for? This is not as difficult as it may at first seem. In winter 
one can attract them by placing food for them. If done regu- 
larly, soon they will come daily to their lunch counter for their 
meals. During the spring, bits of wool, strings, feathers or 
material which they can use to line their nests with will be 
appreciated. In the hot summer months a place where they 
can drink and bathe will have frequent visitors. Above all, build 
bird houses., If properly built and placed, few will go through 
the season displaying the “To Let” sign. For years the. martin, 
the house wren, the tree swallow and the blue bird were the only 
ones that people thought would occupy ready built houses. Now 
it is known that many others which formerly ignored man-built 
houses are occupying them. Titmice, Nuthatches and Wood- 
peckers build new houses each year. Red headed and gold 
fronted woodpeckers will occupy built houses, while the downy 
woodpeckers has been known to find such a place a satisfactory 
home for his young offspring. Robins, brown thrashers and song 
sparrows prefer homes open on two sides. While some birds 
are satisfied with almost any sort of lodging, other require homes 
built to suit their requirements. Wrens and bluebirds will build 
in tin cans wired in convenient localities, but chickadees and 
nuthatches won’t. Wood is the most satisfactory building 


162 FOURTH QUARTER 


material. In order to shut out rain, entrance holes should be 
sunk lower than the nest. Do not leave protruding nails or 
screws. A perch at the front is not best, since it often invites the 
chattering sparrow. All houses should be able to be opened so 
they may be cleaned out easily. Provide for ventilation but pre- 
vent drafts. If painted, they should be a grey or green if in trees 
or if on poles, white. ; 

If students are interested in this subject, they should write 
for Farmer’s Bulletin 609, Bird Houses and How to Build Them, 
by Ned Dearborn. On page 4 of this bulletin is given a table of 
dimensions of nesting boxes for the various species of birds, 
which is very valuable. ) 


Watering, Feeding and Care of Young Birds 


While birds appreciate feed especially in cold weather, it is 
also most welcome when they are raising their young. The most 
we can do at this time is to supply the food for the older ones, 
and they in turn feed the young. Bits of meat placed near their 
water supply will be appreciated. Be sure the water basin is 
kept clean and well filled. Another attention they will appreciate 
is for us to keep all cats away while the young are learning to fly. 
Another thing too often overlooked is a supply of fine sand, or 
coal ashes. This the birds like and need when they eat seeds. 
Most of the food of the baby birds consist of larvae or other 
worms. If you want to see an old robin smile, put a supply of 
these some day near her water pan, then watch her while she 
feeds her babies. ) 7 | . 


Need of Woodland Preserves to be Used as Bird Harbors 


Our wild life is slowly but surely vanishing with our native 
timber. To the farmer who still keeps his wood lot, the problem 
of attracting birds is a simple one. Bird societies throughout the 
United, States made efforts to have woodland preserves main- 
tained for their little charges, and where this is done, the birds 
congregate in great numbers. Most birds like to return to their 
old homes, and pairs have returned year after year to trees or 
clumps of bushes, where they lived the season before. If you 
wish to encourage your bird friends, spare your woodlot for 
their nests. yi thi | Saree 


Landscape Gardening 


By landscape gardening we mean the beautifying of any 
plot of ground. This may range in size from the small 30 foot 
city lot to estates with hundreds, even thousands of acres. On the 
smaller scale, the work is usually done in a more formal manner, 
with the house as a nucleus, around which trees, shrubs, and 


FOURTH QUARTER 163 


flowers are grouped. In larger grounds, nature may be left undis- 
turbed as far as arrangement is concerned, the work of the 
gardener being as a supplement. 

In general landscape gardening includes the artistic arrange- 
ment of plants, placing of buildings in harmonious relationship 
and the skillful use of walks and drives. 


Artistic Arrangement of Plants 


The artistic arrangement of plants depends upon various 
factors: Size of grounds, number and position of buildings, 
climate, use of premises, and many others. Hence but general 
directions are possible here. First avoid a patchy arrangement 
of plants. Do not plant a rose bush in the middle of a green 
stretch of sod merely because there is room for it there. Shrubs 
are best banked around porches or in fence corners. Walks may - 
be bordered with roses or bulb plants such as tulips. The largest 
plants naturally are placed in the background. 

The habits of plants must also be studied in arranging them. 
Some require strong sunlight, others prefer shade. Their indi- 
vidual preferences must be considered. But above all remember 
that well kept stretches of green grass are the first requisite of a 
beautiful lawn and don’t mar it by promiscuous planting of 
flowers or shrubs. 


Buildings and their Relationship 


In considering the question of landscape gardening, we must 
tale into consideration the number of buildings and their relation 
to each other. As a rule, the location of buildings is fixed and 
the best we can do is to plan our scheme of gardening to conform 
to them rather than to change their position. 

Even if this relation is unfortunate, a clever planting of 
vines, trees, making arbours, or laying out winding drives and 
walks will do much to lessen the defect. All barns, outbuildings, 
garages, etc., should be placed at a reasonable distance from the 
house. What this distance is depends upon the size of the lot, 
and the buildings in question. They will work in better with 
the general scheme if they conform in so far as possible with 
the general appearance of the house—that is if they are built of 
the same material, are alike in color and general lines. 


Walks and Drives 


Walks and drives are not only of use around a home, but 
they are an ever present help in time of trouble to the landscape 
gardener. 

Have you ever noticed a stout, fleshy person dressed in 
checks, or a thin, scrawy one dressed in stripes? If the checks 


Pyne. 


164 FOURTH QUARTER 


were put on the thin person and the stripes on the fleshy, the 
effect would be far more pleasing. It is just the same with walks 
around a house. Straight drives and walks give a prim formal 
look to a place and are quite all right if that is the effect wanted. 
This calls for formal treatment of shrubbery and flower planting. 
However, the more “homey” effect is gained by bending walks, 
and drives that circle. But space must again decide this. The 
man with a city lot 30 or 32 feet wide is happy to have room 
for a straight drive for his “fliver.”” The grace of curving drives 
is left to his more fortunate neighbor of the large yard. Such 
a yard of limited space is best bordered with a low cut hedge and 
a few flowers banked in the corners of the yard or against the 
base of the house and porch. Beware in limited quarters of 
overcrowding. 


IMPROVING THE HOME GROUNDS 


The Lawn and Its Care; Bluegrass 
Americans within the past generation awoke to the fact 
that there was more in life than mere money getting. This 
awakening has extended not only to the middle and wealthly 
classes, but to the poor as well. One of its most noticeable 
results has been in the increased attention paid to the home 


and home grounds. Our parks and recreation grounds are but . 


a further development of this same movement.. Perhaps in the 
country this has been of the slower growth, owing largely to 
conditions there, rather than to greater indifference. On the 
farm there are so very many necessary things to be done that 
there is little time for the things one merely wishes to do. 
But so firmly fixed is the idea becoming in the modern up-to- 
date farmer’s mind, that a beautiful well kept home and lawn 
is just as necessary as a well stocked barn or feed lot, that 
throughout the length and breadth of our land today, beautiful 
rural homes are now the rule rather than the exception. In the 
pursuit of a beautiful home and ground, the average farmer 
is usually at an advantage over the city neighbor. In the first 
place, he practically always has a greater stretch of space in 
the second, there are usually wonderful old trees, some of them 
native forest trees, that are generations old, and the third point 
of advantage is that he usually is better financially able to 
make improvements than his salaried brother of the city. 
Almost one of the first requisites of a beautiful farm lawn 
is a fence. A lawn over which farm animals and fowls wander 
at will cannot and never will be a thing of beauty. Concrete 
walks, skillfully laid out, are also a great aid in securing a neat 
lawn; however, a well kept gravel walk is equally attractive, 
but requires more care. : 


FOURTH QUARTER 165 


White is always an attractive color for a house in the 
rural districts, and since it is away from the smoke and dirt of 
the city, is usually a thoroughly practical color. One of the 
most attractive country homes the writer has ever seen in 
Illinois was in Christian Gounty several summers ago. A gravel 
drive curved between a line of great oaks up to a large white 
house set well back in a spacious lawn. The old time shutters 
were painted a soft green which seemed to melt into the green of 
the bending trees, while a bright note of color was lent by the 
almost endless number of scarlet geraniums bordering walks, 
drives and porches. It was a most effective arrangement, and 
one requiring but a few hours of care each week. Chickens 
and pigs there were most’surely around that farm somewhere, 
but that farmer had learned that chickens and pigs should 
have a place and be kept in it. One of the most common mis- 
takes in planning a lawn is to cut it up into patches, placing 
old time flower beds here and there with little regard for line 
or detail. Modern methods of horticulture are forcing the 
realization home that there is nothing more attractive in the 
way of lawn decoration than long unbroken stretches of well 
kept grass. This does not mean grass knee high, gone to seed, 
or filled with weeds. A lawn mower has now become around 
every home not a convenience merely, but a necessity. Its 
judicious use aids much in keeping a lawn in order. A word of 
caution is needed to the city vard owners. ‘That is, a lawn 
should never be watered when the sun is shining on it, nor 
should the grass be kept mown too closely during the dry, hot 
summer months. To do so may result in its burning out. 

Often it is advantageous to add lime to the lawn. The best 
sort to use is the ordinary ground limestone (Calcium carbon- 
ate) or air slacked lime. These are easiest to handle and to 
obtain. 

Kentucky blue grass makes the most satisfactory grass, 
but is slow in starting, so it is recommended that it be sown 
with red top and English Rye. Manure may be applied either 
in spring or fall, preferably the latter. 


Starting a Lawn 

In starting a lawn there are various ways to proceed, de- 
pending upon the condition of the ground. If there is a reason- 
able stand of grass, our first move should be to enrich the soil 
and encourage the growth already there. If there are bare 
spots, these should be dug up with a rake, and sprinkled over 
thickly with good clover and blue grass seed. Lime may be 
added if needed, also wood ashes are excellent as is well rotted 
manure. Sheep manure is especially good. ’ 


166 FOURTH QUARTER 


Caring for a Lawn 

This we take it has been done in the early spring. After the 
grass has begun to come up, we will also find dandelions, 
plantain, and a host of other weeds. In spite of all remedies 
on the market for these pests the only real success the writer 
finds lays in a sharp kitchen knife and unlimited patience. For 
weeks it may seem that two dandelions come where you dig out 
one, but perseverence counts here as elsewhere, and if watch is 
kept and none allowed to go to seed, the worst is over the first 
season. However in a dandelion infested neighborhood, one 
is never entirely safe, and eternal vigilance is the price of a fine 
lawn. 

It seems needless to state one should never water a lawn 
when the sun is shining but a walk down a residence street any 
hot day will show how often this is done. Another warning 
seems necessary. Do not cut the grass to closely during dry 
seasons. 


Enemies of the Lawn 


The enemies of a lawn are legion, and range from the little 
blind mole burrowing his way underground to Bobby with his 
new roller skates. Among the animal enemies may be listed 
moles, ants, dogs that persist in burying bones, rabbits, chickens, 
and last but not least children. Children should have their own 
play ground, for no lawn that is used as a play ground can ever 
be a thing of beauty or a joy to its owner. Croquet sets and 
swings have caused more ruined lawns than any other half 
dozen things combined. There are various weeds and small 
insects that sometimes cause trouble but each is seldom of serious 
consequence, and if they are, require care too technical to be 
treated here. 


Shrubs, Their Characteristics; the Placing of Shrubs; Border 
Planting; Foundation Planting 


Shrubs may be divided into many classes, and by different 
methods, but the main question that arises in the mind of a 
prospective purchaser for garden or lawn is size. As far as the 
habits of growth are concerned, shrubs may be divided into the 
three classes: 

1. High growing, used largely as backgrounds. 

2. The medium growing shrubs known as fillers which may 
be used before the high growing shrubs, just back of No. 3, the 
low growing or dwarf shrubs. These are known as facers. In 
addition to the question of size, we also have the question of 
shape. Some are upright, some arching or bending, some 
spreading. 


FOURTH QUARTER 16 


In addition to the above charactertistics, that of flowering 
should be carefully considered when shrubs are planted. Color, 
size, and time of flowering are all very important. In the first 


| place, great care should be taken to keep colors that clash apart. 


Pink and red, pink and purple, purple and red, and like combi- 
nations should never be placed together. However, if the bloom- 
ing time of two colors is different, it does not matter if they are 
planted together. 

Unless some very definite color scheme is being worked out, 
it is better to have variety in color. In choosing the Weigela 
one may have white, rose and red. The lilacs also offer a variety 
of colors to choose from. 

The time of blooming is also another most important con- 
sideration. We should so select our shrubs that there will be 
a combination blooming period. If we select those that bloom 
all at the same time, the blooms come and go, and the yard is 
soon without flowers. 

Beginning in the early spring even before the leaves appear, 
we have the Forsythia, commonly known as Fortune’s Golden 
Bell, or simply as Golden Bell. These bright yellow bell like 
flowers appear before the leaves, and lawns dotted with the bright 


‘brushes present a beautiful appearance. The Red But or Cercis 


comes next and adds a flaming note of color to the spring land- 
scape. The Dentzias are next and are followed by the magnifi- 
cent Spirea Van Houttei, which many call the one best shrub. 
It forms a beautiful billowy white mass whenever in bloom. 
After its blooming season is over it also makes an attractive 
shrub, because of its fine foliage and beautiful rich green. The 
Mock Orange or Syringa is the next shrub that blooms. Because 
of the profusion of its sweet wax-like blossoms it has long been 
a universal favorite. The High Bush Cranberry blooms a little 
later and is all too little known in this neighborhood. It is not 
only an attractive spring bloomer, but brilliant scarlet fruit soon 
follow the bloom. Such bushes and shrubs serve to attract birds 


to build their nests near, and anything that encourages these 


feathered friends is a decided asset. 

Tamarix Africana is also a beautiful shrub little known here. 
Its beautiful soft pink is different from any other shrub, and 
has been described by one admirer as spray from an ocean 
breaker. 

June is preeminently the month of roses. It is difficult to 
limit the discussion of.roses to a few pages, if one says anything 
at all about them. Perhaps there is no flower that so thoroughly 
satisfies every requirement of flower lovers as roses do. In the 
first place, the variety of colors is almost endless. All known 
shades of yellow from the Persian yellow, a well known variety 


\ 


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wy 168 FOURTH QUARTER 


of our grandmother’s garden, to the long coppery buds of the 
Sunburst, are found. The pinks range from the dainty cream 
white pink to the warm rose pink of the Magna Charta. 
The reds show an endless variety from the soft red of 
the Liberty rose to the velvety black of the Gruss and Teplitz. 
The white roses are endless. The white Killarney is a favorite 
with many because of its double waxy leaves. The Kaiserin A. 
Victoria is another favorite among the white roses because of its 
beautifully shaped buds. 

The La France is also an old time favorite for its full beau- 
tiful flowers. They are very large, double, and a most thor- 
oughly satisfactory cut flower. But the most remarkable rose 
that has appeared on the market in a long time is the Paul 
Neyron. Its long, straight, sturdy stalks grow to a height of 
five feet or more, bearing immense flowers of a deep rose color. 
The stems are nearly thornless, and the buds very desirable for 
cutting. Among the most satisfactory roses the writer has had 
experience with, however, are the Richmond, and the Gruss and 
Teplitz. Both bear magnificent velvety blossoms of dark crim- 
son, beautiful and lasting. They also withstand the winters well 
without much protection. From the Gruss and Teplitz, flowers 


may be cut from May till November. One cannot omit at least — 


some mention of the Ramblers in their discussion of roses. The 
three most successful ramblers are the well known Crimson 
Rambler, Dorothy Perkins, which bears immense clusters of 
double pink, fragrant flowers, and the Baltimore Belle, likewise 
a pink rambler, a well known old time favorite. All three suc- 
ceed with little care, and are most ornamental if trained over 
fences, porches, or lattices. Many unsightly fences and buildings 
may be turned into things of beauty if covered with these runners. 

In discussing flowers that bloom in June, the lilacs should 
receive their share of attention. No landscape planting is com- 
plete without lilacs. They have been a prime favorite for years 
with all flower lovers, but new methods of budding have given us 
shades and sizes our grandfolk knew nothing about. 

Spirea Billardi is a spreading shrub that grows to the height 
of five or six feet and flowers usually in August and hold over 


until early fall. In the fall we have the Hydrangeas and the | 


Hibiscus, or Rose of Sharon. The latter comes in a variety of 
colors and is too little known. Its chief objection seems to be that 
it is easily winter killed. 

Among the shrubs bearing berries in addition to the High 
Bush Cranberry already mentioned, may be given the Barberry, 
bearing long red berries which last throughout the winter, the 
Snowberry, which bears large clusters of snow white berries in 

. 


\ 


FOURTH QUARTER 169 


the fall and the Rosa Rugosa, which bears its red berries through- 
out the summer the same time shrubs are blooming. 


The Placing of Shrubs 


The placing of shrubs is a most important question, and 
one likely to be undervalued by the amateur lawn maker. In 
planting shrubs, we must bear in mind that we wish, consciously 
or unconsciously, that the finished product will be a harmonious 
whole, with the house the center from which all other decora- 
tions radiate. To secure this, we must not set shrubs here and 
there promiscuously wherever chance shows a bare spot. First, 
a large open front lawn must be left. If small, its apparent size 


-may be increased by effective shrub grouping. The view from 


the front of the house should never be obstructed unless the 
house is placed too near the public street, and the desire is to 
screen it from view. Often unsightly fences and buildings need 
to be screened from view. This will be discussed further under 
our treatment of vines. 

The main use of shrubs around a house is to make it blend 
with the landscape to form a connecting length between horizon 
and house as it were. If one will but consider for a moment 
all the old deserted houses he can remember, he will find those 
that are half hidden by bending trees, tangled vines and over- 
grown shrubbery, do not present as desolate forlorn appearance 
as some tall, gaunt house perched upon a bleak hill top unguarded 


by tree, bush, or shrub. 


Unless a garden is intended as a formal garden, one should 
avoid monotony in shrub planting. On the other hand, one should 
avoid patching effects. The nice distinction between the two 
marks out the skilled and landscape gardner from the amateur. 


Border Planting and Foundation Planting 


There are two chief methods of planting—border and foun- 
dation planting. The tall groups should be used for founda- 
tion planting, and always planted first. If in a round clump they 
should be put in the center; if at the side of a building, they 
should be placed in the background. Then in front of or around 
the foundation shrubs, we may use the medium size shrubs or 
fillers. Then next we may plant the dwarf shrubs or facers. 
A very important thing to remember in planting shrubs is to 
remember that nature very rarely ever places a single specimen of 
shrub alone. She always plants them in groups, hence to avoid 
the spotted, patchy look so often seen in yards and gardens, sev- 
eral of each kind of shrubs should be placed in small groups. 


N 


Se 


FOURTH QUARTER 


Vines 


Vines are very adaptable plants and may be used in various 
ways. Around the porches they are useful to give greater 
privacy. Hall’s Honeysuckle is a favorite for this, as is the 
Chinese Wisteria, the Japanese Clematis, and American Ivy, a 
very artistic effect is often obtained by a combination of two or 
more of these vines. The Dorothy Perkins rose, Japansese 
Clematis, and American Ivy make a good combination, as do the 
Chinese Wi isteria, Dorothy Perkins rose and Climbing American 
Beauty rose. The American Ivy, Baltimore Belle rose, and Hall 
Japan Honeysuckle are also good “mixers.’ 

Any of these combinations are also excellent for arbors that 
one wishes entirely covered. Unsightly objects may be quickly 
covered with Amercian Ivy, Wisteria or Dorothy Perkins rose. 

American Ivy and Boston Ivy are the best plants to use in 
covering houses. They cling to the wall by means of their own 
stems, and over brick, stone, or concrete houses, form a most 
delightful covering.. They also make the houses much cooler 
in summer. The famous old castles throughout Europe have 
been covered for centuries by ivy vines. - 

Honeysuckles and Dorothy Perkins roses are recommended 
for covering steep banks. 


Annual; Perennials 
Annuals are those flowers which must be replanted each 


season. These include some of. our most beautiful summer _ 


flowers, but are usually much more trouble than the biannuals or 
perennials. They require more care, and during the dry months 
require frequent waterings. Perhaps the most popular of the 
annuals are Nasturtiums. If planted early they have their bloom- 
ing season over before the dry weather begins. Their spicy frag- 
rance and vivid colors make them especially welcome as table 


flowers, when arranged in low bowls. The sweat pea comes some- | 


what later than the nasturtium, but easily rivals it in favor. There 
is a peculiar daintiness both of form and color about this flower 
that endears it to all flower lovers. However, since the vines 
soon die, if the flowers are not gathered, it requires almost daily 
care to keep a good crop of flowers in bloom. 


Asters and Cosmos are the popular fall annuals and are © 
justly so. Both require little attention and reward one with a 


profusion of gorgeous colored blooms during the fall. 


The students should add to this list of annuals, } giving their 


experience in the past in pce the various kinds. 


ee 


FOURTH QUARTER 171 


Perennials 


By perennials, we mean plants that live from year to year 
without replanting. A nasturtium is an annual, for it lasts but a 
year, while a poeny is a perennial in that it lives from year to 
year. Some recommended for a country garden are: Monkshood, 
Columbine, Hollyhocks, Larkspur, and Bleeding Heart. 


Flowering Plants 


A volume might be written on flowering plants. They in- 
clude both annuals and perennials, most of which have already 
_ been mentioned. Violets, bloodroots, hepatica, spring beauties, 
anemones, columbine and many others are among the native 
flowers. Phlox, dalilias, hollyhocks, pinks, sunflowers, nastur- 
tiums, verbenas, mignonette, candytuft and larkspur are also 
recommended. If we wish to have our flowers from the bulb 
plants there are crocus, tulips, hyacinths, lilies, and narcisis. 
- Geraniums also make desirable blooming plants for almost the 
whole year around. 
There are many others such as the fuchi, begonia, and others 
ie nenacd only for pot culture. 


_ Hardy Perennials; Some Good Varieties for Colors Effect 


Among the hardy flowering perennials we find many well 

known popular flowers. Chief among these are the Peonies, 
bs Pinmeys, of our grandmother’s garden. These range in color 
from pure white, shell pink, salmon, rose, to deep crimson. 
Phlox come in white, pink, and red, and any border of 
| hardy perennials is incomplete without Phlox. 
| The Blanket flower is on of the best of the perennials. 
i) It has large daisy-like flowers, with dark reddish grown centers 
blending through all shades to orange crimson at the ‘petal tips. 
It grows about two feet high. 
| __ The Foxglove grows about four feet high, blooms in July 
jand August. It is a well known favorite. with rose colored bell 
| ‘shaped flowers, densely arranged at the ends of slender branches. 

£ Chrysanthemums range from white, yellow, various shades 
f red, pink, blue, and purple with wonderful combinations of 
+ ch erent colors. The better known garden type is pink, white, 
r yellow, and grows about three feet high. 
Golden Glow is an excellent tall growing, hardy perennial 
t, with immense bunches of bright golden yellow flowers 
large as dahlias on slender stems. “It often grows seven feet 


P4172 FOURTH QUARTER 


a> ae 


The Iris of various kinds and colors is justly popular. The 
Japanese Iris has red flowers, borne on stout stems three feet 
tall. It blooms in June and July. The German Iris blooms in 
May and June, and is blue, white or yellow. 

Mallous are hardy perennials resembling the old time 
Hollyhock. It grows to be five feet tall, blooms in July and 
August, both pink and white flowers. 

The Rocky Mountain Columbine grows to the height of 
about two feet. In early spring, it bears showy, light blue 
flowers on slender branches. 

The Oriental Poppy is a thrifty grower, esi often reaches 
three feet or more. It has immense flowers of a bright flaming | 
scarlet color, wearing at the base of a cut, formed by the petals, 
a maltese cross of,purple black. 

The Wind Flower is a very attractive, rapid grower. The 
flowers are white with yellow center. It blooms from August till 
November. It is two to three feet in height. 

Good Varieties for Coler Effects. Little need be said on 
this subject in addition to what has already been said. Care 
should be taken not to plant flowers whose colors clash too near 
together. As a general rule, flowers with vivid glowing colors 
make most effective back grounds, while dainty delicate colors 
usually show up best if used against a background of plain 
green. Avoid monotony in a color scheme. The Golden Bell and 
Red Bud of early spring are daring bits of color that lend charm 
to the plain green of the early foliage. However, if anything is 
planted as a formal border, as tulips or geraniums, along walls 
or drive, a more symmetrical look is given to the arrangement 1{/ 
the flowers are of the same color and kind. 

Be careful in setting roses to keep pink and red ones sepa- 
rated, also vellow and red ones. The question of placing fo 
color effect is largely one of taste, however, and what would! 
-be a riot of beauty to one might be a clash of colors to anothey). 
It is a subject upon which ever landscape gardener differs, an: 
as each person’s lawn is largely for his own enjoyment, if — 
suits him and gives him pleasure, it will at least have accomy 
lished part of its mission. 


Annuals raised in the Neighborhood. 


Under the annuals we can list most of the plants of whi: 
we buy seeds in the spring. They include nasturtiums, cosmc 
sweet peas, astors, salvia, baby breath, some varieties of pinl§ 
verbenias, and host of others. 


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FOURTH QUARTER 


Projects in Improving the Home and School Grounds. 


Every child naturally loves beautiful things and if given 
the chance, will work to secure them. If parents and teachers 
would but make use of this desire, many improvements could 
be made both in the home and school grounds. If any care to 
do so by writing Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Mo., many useful 
and valuable suggestions will be given them without charge in 
regard to beautifying home and school grounds. <A group of 
skilled landscape gardeners are kept who will personally answer 
any questions and submit drawings if desired of proposed 
improvements in lawns. It is suggested that teachers form 
clubs whose aims will be to undertake and carry out certain 
improvements around the schood grounds. 


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